Keywords
regulation of emotions
ressentiment
values
How to Cite
Abstract
Ressentiment is a complex psychological phenomenon, manifesting as a relatively permanent emotional and cognitive attitude, arising under conditions of frustration, a sense of injustice, and the individual’s experienced powerlessness. Its essence is not limited to the negative experience of emotions but also includes the systematic distortion of the perception of axiological reality and the secondary revaluation of the value system. In the article, ressentiment is analysed as a compensatory regulatory mechanism that allows an individual to maintain a subjective sense of meaning and coherence at the expense of deforming relational and existential evaluations. Referring to the philosophical approaches of Friedrich Nietzsche Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift from 1887 and Max Scheler Das Ressentiment im Aufbau der Moralen from 1912 and to James’s contemporary models of emotion regulation Gross (1998, 2003); Gross and Thompson (2023); Roskam, Gross, and Mikolajczak (2023) The article shows ressentiment as a phenomenon that intensifies in psychosocial conditions, where an excess of stimuli, comparative pressure and chronic exposure are conducive to the perpetuation of negative evaluations and succumbing to recursive loops of affect (Haidt, 2024). Particular emphasis is placed on the role of ressentiment in the reorganisation of the hierarchy of values: values that were originally unattainable are depreciated, and substitute values are raised to normative status. The article argues that ressentiment limits the ability to reflectively evaluate, engage in dialogue, and act responsibly because it stabilises non-adaptive forms of emotion and affect regulation over the long term (Gross, 2015; Strakosch, Schulze, Miano, Pruessner, & Barnow, 2024; Westen & Blagov, 2007).
References
Aka, B. T. (2023). Cultural Dimensions of Emotion Regulation. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 15(3), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1103621
Baumeister, R. F., Zell, A. L., & Tice, D. M. (2007). How emotions facilitate and impair self-regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 408–426). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Bombaerts, G., Spahn, A., & Laes, E. (2023). Structuring values and normative frameworks using Schwartz’s value theory to map the three tenets of energy justice. Energy Research & Social Science, 104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2023.103244
Bowlby, J. (2022). Przywiązanie [Attachment]. (M. Polaszeska- Nicke, Trans.). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. (Original work published 1969).
Büyüköksüz, E., & Kayaalp-pehlivan, R. (2025). Psychological Inflexibility, Mindfulness, Emotion Regulation, Self-compassion, and Anxiety in Adults: A Serial Mediation Model. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(1), 107–134. https://doi.org/10.21666/muefd.1643883
Campbell-Sills, L., & Barlow, D. H. (2007). Incorporating emotion regulation into conceptualizations and treatments of anxiety and mood disorders. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 542–559). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Caramanica, R., Williams, Z., & Rice, S. (2023). Expressive suppression as an emotion regulation technique and its potential impact on perceived stress. Management Science Letters, 13(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2022.11.002
Carlsson, J., Eriksson, P. L., & Azad, A. (2025). Mixed Lessons: Narrative Identity Development Among Youths in Secure Care. Identity, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2025.2485146
Daleandro, K., Branch, R., & Berman, S. L. (2025). Attachment, Identity Processing Style, and Emotion Regulation among Emerging Adults. Trends in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-025-00492-6
Dewey, J. (1939). Theory of valuation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Drabarek, A. (2019). The subject of axiology. Discussions on the Nature of Moral Values: Publishing House of the Academy of Special Education.
Elizarov, E., Ziv, Y., & Benish-Weisman, M. (2024). Personal values and social behavior in early childhood: Understanding the contribution of social information processing and attitudes. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 39(4), 3511–3536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-024-00841-6
Ellsworth, P. C., & Scherer, K. R. (2003). Appraisal processes in emotion. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 572–595). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Fonagy, P., & Allison, E. (2023). Beyond Mentalizing: Epistemic Trust and the Transmission of Culture. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 92(4), 599–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332828.2023.2290023
Frijda, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43(5), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.43.5.349
Ganzen, V. A., & Ronginskaya, T. I. (1999). Systematic description of human needs. Journal of Saint Petersburg University, 6(4), 90–94.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J. (2003). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198
Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3-22). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840x.2014.940781
Gross, J. J., (2024). Conceptual Foundations of Emotion Regulation. In J. J. Gross and B. Q. Ford (Eds.) Handbook of Emotion Regulation (3rd ed., pp. 3–24). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.106.1.95
Haag, A. C., Bagrodia, R., & Bonanno, G. A. (2024). Emotion Regulation Flexibility in Adolescents: A Systematic Review from Conceptualization to Methodology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 27(3), 697–713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-024-00483-6
Haidt, J. (2024). The anxious generation : how the great rewiring of childhood is causing an epidemic of mental illness. New York: Penguin Press.
Han, B.-C., (2022). Non-things : upheaval in the lifeworld (D. Steuer Trans.). Medford, MA: Polity Press.
Hartmann, N. (1988). Metafizyczny problem wartości [The metaphysical problem of values]. In W. Galewicz (Ed. & Trans.), Z fenomenologii wartości. Kraków: Papieska Akademia Teologiczna.
Hoebeke, Y., Blanchard, M. A., Bernstein, E. E., McNally, R. J., & Heeren, A. (2023). Negativity is Key for Understanding the Interplay Between Rumination’s Features, Attention Control, and Their Dynamic Nature: A Temporal Network Approach. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 48(4), 774–780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-023-10432-2
Hofmann, S. G., Carpenter, J. K., & Curtiss, J. (2016). Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (IERQ): Scale Development and Psychometric Characteristics. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40(3), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9756-2
Inzlicht, M., Werner, K. M., Briskin, J. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2021). Integrating models of self-regulation. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-061020-105721
Jonason, P. K., Foster, J. D., Csathó, Á., & Gouveia, V. (2018). Expectancy biases underneath the Dark Triad traits: Associations with optimism, pessimism, and hopelessness. Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 190–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.020
Karbowski, M. G. (2025). Odsłanianie resentymentu. Analiza psychologiczna w wymiarze indywidualnym i społecznym [Exposing resentment. Psychological analysis in the individual and social dimension]. Warszawa: ELIPSA Dom Wydawniczy.
Karbowski, M. G. (2026). Ressentiment as a silent destroyer of romantic relationships: The importance of attachment styles and life satisfaction in the context of relationship duration. Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio, 65(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.34766/2czv1t27
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition & Emotion, 23(1), 4–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802619031
Kuang, J., & Bicchieri, C. (2024). Language matters: how normative expressions shape norm perception and affect norm compliance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 379(1897). https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0037
Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From Psychological Stress to the Emotions: A History of Changing Outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000245
Ledzińska, M. (2022). Stres informacyjny jako zagrożenie dla rozwoju [Information stress as a threat to development]. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 5(1), 77–97.
Ledzińska, M., & Postek, S. (2017). From metaphorical information overflow and overload to real stress: Theoretical background, empirical findings, and applications. European Management Journal, 35(6), 785–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2017.07.002
Linehan, M. M., Bohus, M., & Lynch, T. R. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy for pervasive emotion dysregulation: Theoretical and practical underpinnings. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 581–605). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience Theory and Research on Children and Families: Past, Present, and Promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12255
Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of emotion: A review. Cognition & Emotion, 23(2), 209–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802204677
Meyers, S., Hu, D., & Tamir, M. (2025). Cognitive reappraisal is more effective for regulating emotions than moods. Affective Science, 6(3), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-025-00310-3
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2018). Attachment theory as a framework for studying relationship dynamics and functioning. In A. L. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships (2nd ed.) (pp. 175–185). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mitchell, B. J., Baugher, B., Gawlik, E., Richmond, J., Sidney, P. G., Taber, J. M., ... Coifman, K. G. (2024). How are you feeling today? Dynamic and static indices of daily affect predict psychological adjustment one year later in a multi-cohort, longitudinal investigation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 48(4), 610–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-024-10484-y
Morris, A. M., Freeberg-Powell, E., Verma, S., Di Giuseppe, M., Crespo, H., Hoffman, L., & Rice, T. (2025). Attachment classification, emotion regulation, and defense mechanisms: An integrative narrative review. Healthcare, 13(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13233105
Nietzsche, F. (2022). Z genealogii moralności [From the genealogy of morality] (E. Kireszura-Wojciechowska & J. Dudek, Trans.). Kraków: vis-a-vis Etiuda. (Original work published 1887)
Nietzsche, F. (2022b). Tako rzecze Zaratustra [Thus saith Zarathustra] (W. Berent, Trans.). Kraków: vis-à-vis / Etiuda. (Original work published 1883–1885)
Nietzsche, F. (2025). Zmierzch bożyszcz, czyli jak filozofuje się młotem [Twilight of idols, or how to philosophize with a hammer] (S. Wyrzykowski, Trans.). Kraków: vis-à-vis / Etiuda. (Original work published 1889)
Niven, K., & López-Pérez, B. (2025). Interpersonal emotion regulation: Reflecting on progress and charting the path forward. Emotion, 25(2), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001472
Park, C. L. (2022). Meaning making following trauma. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.844891
Parkinson, B., Totterdell, P., Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1996). Changing moods: The psychology of mood and mood regulation. London: Longman.
Preece, D. A., Ditzer, J., & Gross, J. J. (2025). Emotion Regulation. In F. C. Worrell (Ed.)Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.923
Puccetti, N. A., Villano, W. J., Fadok, J. P., & Heller, A. S. (2023). Temporal dynamics of affect in the brain: Evidence from human imaging and animal models. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 133, 104491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.12.014
Reitsema, A. M., Jeronimus, B. F., van Dijk, M., Ceulemans, E., van Roekel, E., Kuppens, P., & de Jonge, P. (2023). Distinguishing dimensions of emotion dynamics across 12 emotions in adolescents’ daily lives. Emotion, 23(6), 1549–1561. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001173
Ronginskaya, T. I. (2022). System approach to psychological concepts analysis: Contribution of Professor V. A. Ganzen to Russian psychology development. Journal of Saint Petersburg University. Psychology, 12(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu16.2022.105
Roskam, I., Gross, J. J., & Mikolajczak, M. (Eds.). (2023). Emotion regulation and parenting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009304368
Russo, C., Danioni, F., Zagrean, I., & Barni, D. (2022). Changing personal values through value-manipulation tasks: A systematic literature review based on Schwartz’s theory of basic human values. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 12(7), 692–715. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12070052
Salmela, M., & Capelos, T. (2021). Ressentiment: A complex emotion or an emotional mechanism of psychic defences? Politics and Governance, 9(3), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v9i3.4251
Scheler, M. (2022). Resentyment w strukturze systemów moralnych [Resentment in the structure of moral systems] (B. Baran, Trans.). Warszawa: Aletheia. (Original work published 1912)
Scherer, K. R. (1984). On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach. In K. R. Scherer & P. E. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 293–317). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Scherer, K. R., Costa, M., Ricci-Bitti, P., & Ryser, V.-A. (2022). Appraisal Bias and Emotion Dispositions are Risk Factors for Depression and Generalized Anxiety: Empirical Evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 857419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.857419
Schnädelbach, H. (1992). Filozofia w Niemczech 1831–1933 [Philosophy in Germany 1831–1933] (K. Krzemieniowa, Trans.). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Seong, H., Lim, H., Jang, G.-E., Park, G., Kang, J., & Lee, S. M. (2024). Relationship between interpersonal emotion regulation and social support and their effects on depressive symptoms in Korean emerging adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 48(4), 661–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-024-10470-4
Singh, S., Li, B., Gerhard, S., Nunes, A., & Becker, S. (2025). Emotional modulation of inhibitory control in rumination from empirical and computational perspectives. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-025-01360-7
Smallenbroek, O., Leijen, I., Stanciu, A., van Herk, H., & Bardi, A. (2025). Constructing Schwartz values framework using the Rokeach values survey: Human value measurement in the longitudinal internet survey for social sciences. PloS one, 20(8), e0329179. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329179
Stolarski, M., Zajenkowski, M., Jankowski, K. S., & Szymaniak, K. (2020). Deviation from the balanced time perspective: A systematic review of empirical relationships with psychological variables. Personality and Individual Differences, 156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109772
Stover, A. D., Shulkin, J., Lac, A., & Rapp, T. (2024). A meta-analysis of cognitive reappraisal and personal resilience. Clinical Psychology Review, 110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102428
Strakosch, A.-M., Schulze, K., Miano, A., Pruessner, L., & Barnow, S. (2024). Winter is coming: Deciphering the longitudinal associations between everyday emotion regulation and depressive symptoms across the seasons. Current Psychology, 43(30), 25108–25123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06114-1
Thompson, R. A. (1988). Emotion and self-regulation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 36, 367–467. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3078937
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion Regulation: A Theme in Search of Definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3). https://doi.org/10.2307/1166137
Tran, A., Greenaway, K. H., Kostopoulos, J., O’Brien, S. T., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2023). Mapping interpersonal emotion regulation in everyday life. Affective Science, 4(4), 672–683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-023-00223-z
Trentini, E., & Dan-Glauser, E. (2024). Which emotion regulation strategy is efficient for whom? Reappraisal and suppression efficiency for adaptive and maladaptive personality profiles. Journal of Personality, 93(2), 463–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12948
Twenge, J. M. (2019). iGen: Why today’s super-connected kids are growing up less rebellious, more tolerant, less happy – and completely unprepared for adulthood. New York, NY: Atria Books.
Vishkin, A., & Tamir, M. (2023). Emotion norms are unique. Affective Science, 4(3), 453–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-023-00188-z
Wegner, D. M., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4 ed., Vol. 1, pp. 446–496). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Weigelt, A., & Kizilhan, J. I. (2024). The Ukrainian version of the Perceived Injustice Questionnaire: A psychometric evaluation. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1446724
Westen, D. (1994). Toward an integrative model of affect regulation: Applications to social–psychological research. Journal of Personality, 62(4), 641–667. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00312.x
Westen, D., & Blagov, P. S. (2007). Clinical-empirical model of emotion regulation: From defense and motivated reasoning to emotional constraint satisfaction. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66(5), 297–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934
Wilson, T. D., & Tsang, S. (2026). Is there anyone else out there? A measure of psychological solipsism. Personality and Individual Differences, 248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113463
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio