Keywords
women
treatment
urinary incontinence
prevention
How to Cite
Abstract
Urinary incontinence is a common condition in women and is not a physiological consequence of ageing, pregnancy or childbirth. Although it is not usually life-threatening, it can significantly limit daily activities, occupational and social functioning, intimate relationships and mental well-being. The aim of this non-systematic review of the literature is to critically analyse and synthesise current scientific reports on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of urinary incontinence in women. The paper presents the most important issues concerning urinary incontinence in women, with particular emphasis on its aetiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Stress, urge and mixed urinary incontinence are discussed, as well as other, less common forms of this condition in women. The main risk factors are presented, including age, pregnancy and childbirth, excess body weight, the menopause, pelvic floor muscle weakness, chronic cough, constipation, smoking, lack of physical activity, neurological disorders and previous surgical procedures in the lower pelvis. The importance of the medical history, physical and gynaecological examinations, a voiding diary, urinalysis, ultrasound, uroflowmetry, provocation tests and, where indicated, urodynamic studies is highlighted. Conservative management was discussed, encompassing education, lifestyle modification, pelvic floor muscle training and bladder training, as well as pharmacotherapy, minimally invasive methods and surgical treatment. It was emphasised that early recognition of symptoms and individualised management can reduce the severity of symptoms and improve quality of life. Preventive measures should focus on strengthening the pelvic floor muscles, maintaining a healthy body weight, preventing constipation and chronic cough, and overcoming the barriers that prevent women from reporting their symptoms to healthcare professionals. Symptoms can vary in severity – from occasional leakage of small amounts of urine to frequent episodes requiring the use of absorbent products, which limit activity and contribute to social withdrawal. The choice of treatment should take into account the type and severity of symptoms, co-morbidities, previous management, the patient’s expectations and her ability to actively participate in treatment, which is crucial for minimising long-term health, social and emotional consequences.
References
Abebe, S. A., Gashaw, F., Tsegaye, A., Abebaw, D., Kindie, E. A., & Dejen, A. M. (2024). Prevalence and determinants of depression among women with urinary incontinence: A systematic review and meta-analysis worldwide. BMC Women’s Health, 24, Article 591. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-03432-1
Alhamoud, M. A. S., Julaih, F. A., Al-Aqil, H. D. H., Almalki, N. A. S., Alharthi, F. A. G., Alghamdi, A. A., Alshehri, S. A. K., Alqhtani, A. S., Alasiri, M. A., Alaqil, A. S., Alhumaidi, B. N., Saraiva, A., Carrascosa, C., & Raposo, A. (2024). The prevalence and risk factors of stress urinary incontinence among women in Saudi Arabia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Healthcare, 12, Article 2440. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12242440
Aoki, Y., Brown, H. W., Brubaker, L., Cornu, J. N., Daly, J. O., & Cartwright, R. (2017). Urinary incontinence in women. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 3, Article 17042. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.42
Batmani, S., Jalali, R., Mohammadi, M., & Bokaee, S. (2021). Prevalence and factors related to urinary incontinence in older adults women worldwide: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMC Geriatrics, 21, Article 212. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02135-8
Burton, C. S., Korsandi, S., & Enemchukwu, E. (2022). Current state of non-surgical devices for female stress urinary incontinence. Current Urology Reports, 23, 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11934-022-01104-x
Cardozo, L., Rovner, E., Wagg, A., Wein, A., & Abrams, P. (Eds.). (2023). Incontinence (7th ed.). International Continence Society. https://www.ics.org/ici
Chen, L., Han, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, H., Zheng, Y., Zhang, R., Meng, G., Zhang, Y. P., & Ji, D. (2024). Conservative interventions for urinary incontinence on postpartum women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 69(5), 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.13653
Corrado, B., Giardulli, B., Polito, F., Aprea, S., Lanzano, M., & Dodaro, C. (2020). The impact of urinary incontinence on quality of life: A cross-sectional study in the metropolitan city of Naples. Geriatrics, 5(4), Article 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics5040096
Dai, S., Chen, H., & Luo, T. (2023). Prevalence and factors of urinary incontinence among postpartum: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, Article 761. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-06059-6
Dumoulin, C., Cacciari, L. P., & Hay-Smith, E. J. C. (2018). Pelvic floor muscle training versus no treatment, or inactive control treatments, for urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2018(10), Article CD005654. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005654.pub4
Dumoulin, C., Hunter, K. F., Moore, K., Bradley, C. S., Burgio, K. L., Hagen, S., Imamura, M., Thakar, R., Williams, K., & Chambers, T. (2016). Conservative management for female urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse review 2013: Summary of the 5th International Consultation on Incontinence. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 35(1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/nau.22677
Frigerio, M., Barba, M., Cola, A., Braga, A., Celardo, A., Munno, G. M., Schettino, M. T., Vagnetti, P., De Simone, F., Di Lucia, A., Grassini, G., & Torella, M. (2022). Quality of life, psychological wellbeing, and sexuality in women with urinary incontinence—Where are we now: A narrative review. Medicina, 58(4), Article 525. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58040525
Fusco, F., Abdel-Fattah, M., Chapple, C. R., Creta, M., La Falce, S., Waltregny, D., & Novara, G. (2017). Updated systematic review and meta-analysis of the comparative data on colposuspensions, pubovaginal slings, and midurethral tapes in the surgical treatment of female stress urinary incontinence. European Urology, 72(4), 567–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2017.03.025
Grigoryan, B., Shadyan, G., Kasyan, G., & Pushkar, D. (2023). Adjustable slings versus other surgical methods in female stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Urogynecology Journal, 34(7), 1351–1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-023-05535-z
Hay-Smith, E. J. C., Starzec-Proserpio, M., Moller, B., Aldabe, D., Cacciari, L., Pitangui, A. C. R., Vesentini, G., Woodley, S. J., Dumoulin, C., Frawley, H. C., Jorge, C. H., Morin, M., Wallace, S. A., & Weatherall, M. (2024). Comparisons of approaches to pelvic floor muscle training for urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2024(12), Article CD009508. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009508.pub2
Hu, J. S., & Pierre, E. F. (2019). Urinary incontinence in women: Evaluation and management. American Family Physician, 100(6), 339–348. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2019/0915/p339
Huang, Z., Wu, S., Yu, T., & Hu, A. (2020). Efficacy of telemedicine for urinary incontinence in women: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. International Urogynecology Journal, 31, 1507–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-020-04205-5
Imamura, M., Hudson, J., Wallace, S. A., MacLennan, G., Shimonovich, M., Omar, M. I., Javanbakht, M., Moloney, E., Becker, F., Ternent, L., Montgomery, I., Mackie, P., Saraswat, L., Monga, A., Vale, L., Craig, D., & Brazzelli, M. (2019). Surgical interventions for women with stress urinary incontinence: Systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 365, Article l1842. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l1842
Janse van Vuuren, A. C., van Rensburg, J. A., Jacobs, L., & Hanekom, S. (2021). Exploring literature on knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and practices towards urinary incontinence management: A scoping review. International Urogynecology Journal, 32(3), 485–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-020-04628-3
Javanbakht, M., Moloney, E., Brazzelli, M., Wallace, S., Omar, M. I., Monga, A., Saraswat, L., Mackie, P., Imamura, M., Hudson, J., Shimonovich, M., MacLennan, G., Vale, L., & Craig, D. (2020). Surgical treatments for women with stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review of economic evidence. Systematic Reviews, 9, Article 85. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01352-3
Kharaji, G., ShahAli, S., Ebrahimi-Takamjani, I., Sarrafzadeh, J., Sanaei, F., & Shanbehzadeh, S. (2023). Supervised versus unsupervised pelvic floor muscle training in the treatment of women with urinary incontinence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Urogynecology Journal, 34(7), 1339–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-023-05489-2
Kobashi, K. C., Vasavada, S., Bloschichak, A., Hermanson, L., Kaczmarek, J., Kim, S. K., Kirkby, E., & Malik, R. (2023). Updates to surgical treatment of female stress urinary incontinence (SUI): AUA/SUFU guideline (2023). Journal of Urology, 209(6), 1091–1098. https://doi.org/10.1097/JU.0000000000003435
Koomson, G., Mgolozeli, S. E., & Mshunqane, N. (2025). Prevalence of urinary incontinence in postpartum women and physiotherapy interventions applied: An integrative review. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 168(3), 965–977. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.15950
Lawson, S., & Sacks, A. (2018). Pelvic floor physical therapy and women’s health promotion. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 63(4), 410–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.12736
Lee, H., Rhee, Y., & Choi, K. S. (2021). Urinary incontinence and the association with depression, stress, and self-esteem in older Korean women. Scientific Reports, 11, Article 9054. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-98007-2
Liu, W., Sun, X., Gao, Y., Sun, H., Feng, H., Tan, H., Chen, Q., Peng, L., & Wu, I. X. Y. (2024). Comparative effectiveness of nonsurgical interventions for urinary incontinence in older women: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 116, Article 105214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2023.105214
Mantilla Toloza, S. C., Villareal Cogollo, A. F., & Peña García, K. M. (2024). Pelvic floor training to prevent stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review. Actas Urológicas Españolas, 48(4), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acuroe.2024.01.007
Monteiro, S., Riccetto, C., Araújo, A., Galo, L., Brito, N., & Botelho, S. (2018). Efficacy of pelvic floor muscle training in women with overactive bladder syndrome: A systematic review. International Urogynecology Journal, 29(11), 1565–1573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-018-3602-x
Moroni, R. M., Magnani, P. S., Haddad, J. M., Castro, R. A., & Brito, L. G. O. (2016). Conservative treatment of stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia, 38(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1571252
Mostafaei, H., Sadeghi-Bazargani, H., Hajebrahimi, S., Salehi-Pourmehr, H., Ghojazadeh, M., Onur, R., Al Mousa, R. T., & Oelke, M. (2020). Prevalence of female urinary incontinence in the developing world: A systematic review and meta-analysis—A report from the Developing World Committee of the International Continence Society and Iranian Research Center for Evidence Based Medicine. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 39(4), 1063–1086. https://doi.org/10.1002/nau.24342
Nygaard, I. E., & Shaw, J. M. (2016). Physical activity and the pelvic floor. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 214(2), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.08.067
Paiva, L. L., Ferla, L., Darski, C., Catarino, B. M., & Ramos, J. G. L. (2017). Pelvic floor muscle training in groups versus individual or home treatment of women with urinary incontinence: Systematic review and meta-analysis. International Urogynecology Journal, 28(3), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-016-3133-2
Petca, A., Fotă, A., Petca, R.-C., & Rotar, I. C. (2025). Modern conservative management strategies for female stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(10), Article 3268. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14103268
Pierce, H., Perry, L., Chiarelli, P., & Gallagher, R. (2016). A systematic review of prevalence and impact of symptoms of pelvic floor dysfunction in identified workforce groups. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 72(8), 1718–1734. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.12909
Pizzol, D., Demurtas, J., Celotto, S., Maggi, S., Smith, L., Angiolelli, G., Trott, M., Yang, L., & Veronese, N. (2021). Urinary incontinence and quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-020-01712-y
Połocka-Molińska, M., Jakóbczak, B., & Plagens-Rotman, K. (2017). Wpływ nietrzymania moczu na jakość życia kobiet [The impact of urinary incontinence on women’s quality of life]. Polski Przegląd Nauk o Zdrowiu, 2(51), 161–167.
Rada, M. P., Jones, S., Betschart, C., Falconi, G., Haddad, J. M., Doumouchtsis, S. K., & CHORUS: An International Collaboration for Harmonising Outcomes, Research, and Standards in Urogynaecology and Women’s Health. (2022). A meta-synthesis of qualitative studies on stress urinary incontinence in women for the development of a Core Outcome Set: A systematic review. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 158(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13934
Radzimińska, A., Strączyńska, A., Weber-Rajek, M., Styczyńska, H., Strojek, K., & Piekorz, Z. (2018). The impact of pelvic floor muscle training on the quality of life of women with urinary incontinence: A systematic literature review. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 13, 957–965. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S160057
Rocha, F., Carvalho, J., Natal, R. J., & Viana, R. (2018). Evaluation of the pelvic floor muscles training in older women with urinary incontinence: A systematic review. Porto Biomedical Journal, 3(2), Article e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbj.0000000000000009
Rostami, P., Mostafaei, H., Salehi-Pourmehr, H., & Hajebrahimi, S. (2025). An updated systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of female urinary incontinence in developing countries—A collaborative report by the International Continence Society (Developing World Committee) and the Iranian Research Center for Evidence-Based Medicine. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 44(8), 1639–1668. https://doi.org/10.1002/nau.70127
Sheng, Y., Carpenter, J. S., Ashton-Miller, J. A., & Miller, J. M. (2022). Mechanisms of pelvic floor muscle training for managing urinary incontinence in women: A scoping review. BMC Women’s Health, 22, Article 161. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-01742-w
Sousa, A. J. D. S., Rodrigues, J. C., Padilha, J. F., Godoy, A. G., Degani, A. M., Danna-Santos, A., & Driusso, P. (2024). Effects of health education on women with urinary incontinence: Systematic review and meta-analysis. International Urogynecology Journal, 35(2), 273–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-023-05693-0
Steenstrup, B., Le Rumeur, E., Moreau, S., & Cornu, J. N. (2018). Sédentarité et incontinence urinaire chez la femme: Une revue de littérature [Sedentary lifestyle and urinary incontinence in women: A literature review]. Progrès en Urologie, 28(17), 973–979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2018.07.006
Stewart, F., Berghmans, B., Bø, K., & Glazener, C. M. A. (2017). Electrical stimulation with non-implanted devices for stress urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2017(12), Article CD012390. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012390.pub2
Stroppa, V., Iovino, P., Marcomini, I., D’Errico, R., Poliani, A., Rosa, D., Manara, D. F., & Villa, G. (2025). Social isolation among individuals with incontinence: A scoping review. Nursing Reports, 15(11), Article 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/nursrep15110375
Sussman, R. D., Syan, R., & Brucker, B. M. (2020). Guideline of guidelines: Urinary incontinence in women. BJU International, 125(5), 638–655. https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.14927
Syeda, F., & Pandit, U. (2024). Urinary incontinence in female athletes: A systematic review on prevalence and physical therapy approaches. Cureus, 16(7), Article e64544. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.64544
Teixeira, R. V., Colla, C., Sbruzzi, G., Mallmann, A., & Paiva, L. L. (2018). Prevalence of urinary incontinence in female athletes: A systematic review with meta-analysis. International Urogynecology Journal, 29(12), 1717–1725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-018-3651-1
Todhunter-Brown, A., Hazelton, C., Campbell, P., Elders, A., Hagen, S., & McClurg, D. (2022). Conservative interventions for treating urinary incontinence in women: An overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2022(9), Article CD012337. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012337.pub2
Trapani, S., Villa, G., Poliani, A., Gnecchi, S., Rosa, D., & Manara, D. F. (2024). Non-pharmacological management of urge urinary incontinence in women between 40 and 65 years old: A systematic review. Nursing Reports, 14(1), 174–196. https://doi.org/10.3390/nursrep14010015
Troko, J., Bach, F., & Toozs-Hobson, P. (2016). Predicting urinary incontinence in women in later life: A systematic review. Maturitas, 94, 110–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.09.006
Vasconcelos, C. T. M., Firmiano, M. L. V., Oriá, M. O. B., Vasconcelos Neto, J. A., Saboia, D. M., & Bezerra, L. R. P. S. (2019). Women’s knowledge, attitude and practice related to urinary incontinence: Systematic review. International Urogynecology Journal, 30(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-018-3759-3
Wang, H., Liu, J., Fang, K., Liu, J., Chen, T., Yang, T., & Shi, X. (2022). Transobturator tape, tension-free vaginal tape, and transvaginal tension-free vaginal tape-obturator for the treatment of female stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 157(3), 527–535. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13790
Wang, K., Xu, X., Jia, G., & Jiang, H. (2020). Risk factors for postpartum stress urinary incontinence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive Sciences, 27(12), 2129–2145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-020-00254-y
Wieland, L. S., Shrestha, N., Lassi, Z. S., Panda, S., Chiaramonte, D., & Skoetz, N. (2019). Yoga for treating urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2019(2), Article CD012668. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012668.pub2
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio