Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio is an interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing original, high-quality research articles in the fields of social sciences, family studies, medical and health sciences, humanities, as well as theology and arts, while also appreciating an interdisciplinary approach in these fields. The journal has been published continuously since 2010, providing open access to articles by both Polish and international authors. It is published by the Academic's Society Fides et Ratio Foundation. Each of the issues of the Quarterly in the annual cycle focuses on the following thematic areas: Love, Marriage, and Family: An Interdisciplinary Approach Dialogue and Communication: An Interdisciplinary Approach Life and Fertility: An Interdisciplinary Approach Exploring Science, Religion, Society, Culture And Art In The Human Journey: An Interdisciplinary Approach Journal Metrics: 70 points in the List of Journals of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland).
Dialogue in crisis intervention: A pragmatic-linguistic analysis of communication mechanisms. A comparative case study
This article examines the role of communication in crisis intervention, focusing on its regulatory, cognitive, and relational functions. The aim of the study is to identify communication mechanisms that contribute to effective intervention and to analyze factors leading to its failure, with particular emphasis on the linguistic and pragmatic dimensions of dialogue. A qualitative research approach was adopted, based on a comparative analysis of two case studies representing dialogic (effective) and directive (ineffective) communication. The analysis indicates that the dialogical nature of communication, understood as co-creation of meanings and adapting the response to the emotional state of the interlocutor, is an important factor contributing to the effectiveness of the intervention. In the effective case, communication was structured and supportive, enabling emotional regulation, cognitive restructuring, and an increased sense of agency. Techniques such as paraphrasing, emotional reflection, and open-ended questioning facilitated the organization of experience and the gradual reduction of emotional tension. In contrast, the ineffective case was characterized by directive communication, involving imposed interpretations and advice-giving, which triggered psychological reactance, reduced trust, and hindered the intervention process. The results suggest that emotional regulation is a prerequisite for cognitive processing, and its absence prevents meaningful reconstruction of experience. Furthermore, effective communication requires flexibility, responsiveness, and sensitivity to the social context of the individual’s narrative. The study highlights the role of language as a tool for meaning-making and offers practical implications for developing communicative competence in crisis intervention.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Attitudes toward difficulties, problems, and emotional wounds and the sense of loneliness among women in religious communities
The aim of this article is to present the results of research on the relationship between attitudes towards difficulties, problems and wounds and the sense of loneliness among women functioning in religious communities.The study had a quantitative design and was conducted on a group of women belonging to religious communities with varying lengths of membership. The research employed instruments measuring attitudes toward difficulties, self-attitude in challenging situations, emotional and relational functioning, attitudes toward emotional wounds, and the level of loneliness in three dimensions: intellectual, emotional, and behavioral. The results indicated that the participants demonstrated relatively high levels of adaptive attitudes toward difficulties and low levels of loneliness, particularly in the behavioral and intellectual domains. Statistically significant negative correlations were found between attitudes toward difficulties, self-attitude, and attitudes toward emotional wounds and the level of loneliness. This means that the more constructive the attitudes, the lower the level of loneliness experienced. The strongest relationships were observed in the domains of emotional functioning and self-attitude. The findings also suggest that attitudes toward emotional wounds constitute a relatively weaker area of functioning, which may affect psychological well-being and the quality of interpersonal relationships. Additionally, the length of time spent in a religious community was associated with greater stability of the observed relationships. The results highlight the importance of personal resources, social support, and spiritual factors in shaping attitudes toward difficulties and emotional wounds, as well as in reducing loneliness. These findings may serve as a basis for further research and practical interventions aimed at enhancing emotional and relational competencies.
Ressentiment as a distortion and revaluation of the value system in the psychosocial experience of an individual
Ressentiment is a complex psychological phenomenon, manifesting as a relatively permanent emotional and cognitive attitude, arising under conditions of frustration, a sense of injustice, and the individual’s experienced powerlessness. Its essence is not limited to the negative experience of emotions but also includes the systematic distortion of the perception of axiological reality and the secondary revaluation of the value system. In the article, ressentiment is analysed as a compensatory regulatory mechanism that allows an individual to maintain a subjective sense of meaning and coherence at the expense of deforming relational and existential evaluations. Referring to the philosophical approaches of Friedrich Nietzsche Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift from 1887 and Max Scheler Das Ressentiment im Aufbau der Moralen from 1912 and to James’s contemporary models of emotion regulation Gross (1998, 2003); Gross and Thompson (2023); Roskam, Gross, and Mikolajczak (2023) The article shows ressentiment as a phenomenon that intensifies in psychosocial conditions, where an excess of stimuli, comparative pressure and chronic exposure are conducive to the perpetuation of negative evaluations and succumbing to recursive loops of affect (Haidt, 2024). Particular emphasis is placed on the role of ressentiment in the reorganisation of the hierarchy of values: values that were originally unattainable are depreciated, and substitute values are raised to normative status. The article argues that ressentiment limits the ability to reflectively evaluate, engage in dialogue, and act responsibly because it stabilises non-adaptive forms of emotion and affect regulation over the long term (Gross, 2015; Strakosch, Schulze, Miano, Pruessner, & Barnow, 2024; Westen & Blagov, 2007).
Smartphones as a determinant of adolescent developmental crisis and a reinterpretation of the role of educational television. The American experience perspective
This article is an analysis of the evolution of the American education ecosystem in the face of the rapid diffusion of mobile technology and the COVID-19 pandemic. The main aim of the paper is to explore the dichotomy between the destructive impact of smartphones on adolescent wellbeing and the revitalisation of educational television as an inclusive teaching tool. The first part of the text analyses the phenomenon of a “smartphone-based childhood”. Citing a number of post-pandemic studies, the author points to a correlation between unrestricted access to social media and a growing mental health crisis, atrophy of social relationships and cognitive fragmentation of students. Smartphones, defined as powerful vectors of distraction, have forced US lawmakers to impose strict restrictions on their use in schools in order to restore the effectiveness of learning processes. They have clearly failed as educational tools. The second part of the article focuses on the post-pandemic redefinition of the role of technology in education. The experience of lockdown in the field of education, alongside the crisis in the achievement of educational goals, has been a catalyst for innovation. The author analyses the process of moving from ad-hoc e-learning towards advanced hybrid models that integrate artificial intelligence (AI) to personalise teaching and change the role of teachers. Special attention was given to the renaissance of educational television. Thanks to its high inclusivity (97% coverage) and the implementation of new technological standards (ATSC 3.0, EduCast), television has become a key instrument to stop digital exclusion, offering stability in regions with poor network infrastructure. The author also refers to the landmark structural changes in 2025-2026, including the abolition of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB). This process, ending the era of centralised public media in the USA, has forced a shift towards regional models and strategic public sector partnerships with streaming platforms (e.g. NASA and Netflix). The article argues that contemporary educational television, while evolving into an AI-enhanced interactive tool, remains a necessary, albeit evolving, foundation of the American educational infrastructure.
Age of sexual initiation, attitudes towards sexuality, and marital relationships in adulthood
Introduction: The age of sexual initiation constitutes a significant formative factor for so-called sexual scripts and is linked to the quality of intimate relationships formed in the future. Researchers indicate that early sexual debut may be associated with a risk of permissiveness and relationship instability, whereas later initiation fosters the formation of higher quality and more stable marital unions. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between the age of sexual initiation and the quality of marital relationships in adulthood, as well as to verify the hypothesis regarding the mediating role of attitudes towards sexuality in this process. Method: The study involved a group of 455 young adults (222 men and 233 women) aged 20–35 who were in marital relationships. A diagnostic survey model was employed using six standardized research tools (measuring attachment/bonding, love, communication, mate selection, sexual satisfaction, and global relationship quality) and an original questionnaire regarding attitudes and sexual biography. Correlational analyses, difference tests, and mediation analysis were used to verify the hypotheses. Results: The research showed that a later age of initiation co-occurs with a lower number of sexual partners and a higher level of maturity regarding attitudes towards sexuality. The direct link between the age of initiation and marital quality proved to be weak. A key finding is the confirmation of mediation: the relationship between the age of initiation and the quality of the marital relationship disappears when attitudes are taken into account, and attitudes towards sexuality play a significant mediating role in the relationship between the age of initiation and marital relationship quality. This indicates that individuals with mature attitudes (integrating the sensual sexual sphere with the emotional and evaluative ones), regardless of the age of initiation, form more satisfying relationships, although these attitudes correlate more frequently with later sexual initiation. Conclusions: The study revealed that the direct relationship between the age of initiation and marital relationship quality is weak and loses statistical significance after accounting for attitudes towards sexuality (mediation effect). This means that early initiation does not directly determine lower marital relationship quality in adulthood, but rather acts indirectly – through its association with the formation of immature, instrumental attitudes towards sexuality. It is these attitudes, rather than the biographical fact from the past itself, that constitute the key predictor of current marital quality, particularly in the dimensions of perceived mate selection and emotional bonding. The results suggest that the negative consequences of early initiation can be mitigated by shaping mature, integrated attitudes towards sexuality in young people.
Family ties as an essential element of the Catholic family vocation
In its doctrine on marriage and the family, the Catholic Church focuses on what it means to be (in terms of the vocation to holiness) a good parent, child, grandparent, brother, sister, etc. However, even if the norms, etc., or in other words, the “duties and privileges” promulgated by the Magisterium of the Church in relation to the Catholic family, result from its supernatural origin (described by theology and ethics), it should be emphasized that the very nature of the fact of giving birth to a child (i.e., having offspring), there is an (essential) obligation to protect and promote the family thus created in the world. Accordingly, the “marital and family” norms established for this purpose, a particularly important collection of which can be found in the Code of Canon Law (hereinafter: CIC/83), cover a very wide range of human existence. It can be said that they begin with determining which related persons are not allowed to marry and end with matters of same-sex relationships or free unions. However, existential situations are so complex and changeable that they often suggest the need for further clarification of previous determinations. This also applies to matters related to kinship. For example, the CIC/83 does not provide a general definition of a Catholic family (i.e., in a single canon). However, such an attempt can be found in the pastoral constitution Gaudium et spes (cf. nos. 48-49). In particular, when it states that: “By their very nature, the institution of marriage and conjugal love are oriented toward the procreation and education of offspring” (cf. no. 48). The same applies to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (cf. nos. 2201-2206), the exhortation Familiaris Consortio (FC. no. 18), etc. Therefore, it seems that a normative clarification of the concept of the Catholic family, particularly in terms of relationships arising from kinship (e.g., by introducing such a definition into the CIC/83), could help to better understand and further refine pastoral discipline in this area.
The mediating roles of fear of intimacy and sexual communication in the relationship between alexithymia and sexual satisfaction among young men
Sexual satisfaction is an important indicator of sexual health and relationship functioning, yet young men who have difficulties recognizing and expressing emotions may experience lower satisfaction in their intimate lives. The present study addressed the research problem of whether and how alexithymia relates to sexual satisfaction in young heterosexual men by testing fear of intimacy and sexual communication as sequential mechanisms. In an online cross-sectional survey, 153 men aged 18–30 years who were in a romantic relationship (≥ 6 months) completed measures of alexithymia (TAS-20), fear of intimacy (FIS), sexual communication self-efficacy (SCSES), and sexual satisfaction (SSS). It was hypothesized that higher alexithymia would be associated with greater fear of intimacy, which would be linked to lower sexual communication, and in turn to lower sexual satisfaction. Serial mediation analyses (PROCESS Model 6, bootstrapping) supported the hypothesized pathway: alexithymia was indirectly related to sexual satisfaction through increased fear of intimacy and reduced sexual communication. The direct association between alexithymia and sexual satisfaction was attenuated after accounting for the mediators. The model explained 38% of the variance in sexual satisfaction. These findings suggest that intimacy-related avoidance and difficulties in sexual communication may explain why alexithymia undermines sexual satisfaction, highlighting potential targets for prevention and couple-focused interventions.
Ressentiment as a silent destroyer of romantic relationships: The importance of attachment styles and life satisfaction in the context of relationship duration
Partner relationships play a key role in human functioning, being an important source of emotional support, security, and a sense of belonging. Contemporary psychological research increasingly focuses on the factors determining the quality and durability of relationships, among which particular importance is attributed to attachment styles and less to the phenomenon of ressentiment. Attachment styles, formed in early relational experience, determine the ways of regulating closeness, trust, and dependence in partner relationships. On the other hand, ressentiment, understood as a relatively permanent emotional and cognitive disposition of a hidden nature, can act as a “silent destructor” of the relationship, influencing the interpretation of the partner’s behaviour, the emotions experienced and the subjective assessment of the relationship. The paper aims to show the relationship between attachment styles, the level of ressentiment and life satisfaction in relationships of different seniority. The study included 144 people (72 women and 72 men) in partnerships, with two groups separated: people in relationships lasting up to 7 years and over 7 years. The Attachment Styles Questionnaire (KSP) by M. Plopa was used in the research (2008), the Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS) by E. Diener and colleagues, and in the Polish adaptation Z. Juczyński (2001) and the Ressentiment Questionnaire (KRe-Psy) developed by M.G. Karbowski (2025). The results indicate that both attachment styles and the level of ressentiment are significantly associated with life satisfaction in a partnership, regardless of its duration. Ressentiment manifests itself as a correlate that lowers the quality of relationships, co-occurring especially with non-secure attachment styles. In relationships with more than 7 years of experience, higher relational satisfaction is associated with a lower severity of the key components of ressentiment – reluctance (ρ = −0.781), contempt (ρ = −0.802), and regret (ρ = −0.603) – suggesting that as the quality of relationships decreases, persistent forms of hostility and feelings of harm increase. This means that in long-term relationships, ressentiment takes on a relatively chronic character and is associated with a lower rating of the relationship. On the other hand, in relationships up to 7 years of age, relational satisfaction has the lowest level in connection with revenge (ρ = −0.832) and jealousy (ρ = −0.541), while other manifestations of ressentiment are uncorrelated with the quality of the relationship. The results of the study emphasise the universal importance of the analysed variables in and the need for further research, especially of a longitudinal nature, enabling a better understanding of the dynamics of these relationships during the duration of the relationship.
The use of social network analysis (SNA) in educational psychology
The aim of this article is to present the possibilities offered by Social Network Analysis (SNA) in educational psychology research. The first part discusses the general principles of the network approach, with a particular focus on social networks. This is followed by a presentation of selected features of network data and a review of the most important analytical techniques, both descriptive and inferential, offered by network analysis. The final section gives examples of the use of SNA in educational psychology research published in the last few years. The discussion in the article concludes with the thesis that the contribution of SNA to the analysis of variables in the field of educational psychology seems particularly interesting. This alternative way of understanding and analysing data from the field of educational psychology, opens up new possibilities for exploring issues, as it allows a slightly different way of modelling and analysing relationships between variables, designing new strategies for psycho-educational interventions or better explaining the aetiology of certain phenomena. SNA can therefore respond to the needs of both psychologists academically involved in education as well as psychologists-practitioners.
Copyright (c) 2025 Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Obesogens in food as a health risk for obesity
Modern society is confronted on a daily basis with the problem of obesity, which is one of the greatest threats of the 21st century. Factors in the development of obesity are well known, although one of the lesser-known but equally important factors is exposure to chemicals called obesogens. These compounds are found in cosmetics, food and plastics, among others, and exposure can occur through the skin, the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract. The results of many studies highlight the need for increased control and regulation of chemicals contained in consumer products. Understanding the role of obesogens as a factor in the development of obesity can help formulate better and more effective prevention and treatment strategies, which is crucial for public health.
The interplay between local and global culture. Areas of conflict and areas of synergy
The processes of globalisation, which have accelerated since the last decade of the 20th century, have had an impact on the formation of both national and local culture. Their impact, however, has been very ambiguous and perceived in various ways. Local and national cultures have also had an impact on global processes: global culture is now shaped not only by dominant civilisations or great nations. To some extent, everyone participates in this process – all cultures. On the one hand, we can see the mutual reinforcement of local and global processes, and on the other hand, more noticeable today, we see tensions between what is local and what is global. These struggles permeate social reality in various spheres and at various levels. The aim of this article is to identify the most common areas of conflict and synergy, to determine their sources and nature, and then attempt to discuss and present a new perspective on these mutual relationships in order to eliminate as many areas of conflict as possible.
From the light triad to the dark tetrad: Two sides of human nature in the context of life and health, considering cognitive reflection and generosity
This article reviews research on two contrasting groups of personality traits – from the so-called light triad (including faith in humanity, humanism, and Kantianism) to the so-called Dark Tetrad (including Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadistic tendencies). The light triad encompasses empathy, trust, and prosocial attitudes, whereas the Dark Tetrad describes individuals who are manipulative, antagonistic, and lacking in empathy. The article also examines the role of cognitive reflection and generosity in shaping prosocial decisions and moral judgments. The review includes both empirical (quantitative and qualitative) studies and key theoretical works. It cites and discusses findings from correlational and experimental psychological research, including behavioral economic games (considering the role of cognitive reflection) and population-level analyses (e.g., profiling voluntary blood donors and examining altruism in the context of volunteering). The relationships between light triad and Dark Tetrad traits and prosocial behaviors (generosity, altruism) are analyzed, along with aspects of individuals’ health (e.g., health-promoting habits). The article describes definitions of these constructs and research findings indicating, among other things, that individuals with light triad traits exhibit greater empathy, altruism, and life satisfaction, whereas those with Dark Tetrad traits are characterized by a lack of empathy and a tendency toward aggressive or manipulative behaviors. The findings also demonstrate a bidirectional influence of cognitive reflection: when helping others entails personal cost, reflective thinkers behave more selfishly than impulsive ones; however, when altruism carries no personal loss, reflective individuals are more generous and helpful. A study of voluntary blood donors further shows that generosity is strongly correlated with both cognitive and emotional empathy, as well as with a health-promoting lifestyle. The review indicates that the light triad and its associated values (empathy, trust, altruism) promote mental health, better social relationships, and greater life satisfaction. In turn, the dominance of Dark Tetrad traits is associated with antisocial behaviors, social isolation, and reduced psychosocial well-being. Promoting empathy and generosity can benefit individuals and society, whereas strong “dark” traits are linked to negative psychosocial consequences. The article discusses key conclusions and practical implications (e.g., for parenting and public health) and offers suggested directions for future research on the bright and dark aspects of human personality.
Ludic behavior in adulthood: Specificity and psychological functions
Ludic behavior has accompanied humankind throughout history, suggesting that it fulfils an important adaptive function. While children’s play has been exhaustively analyzed by numerous researchers, relatively few studies have attempted to systematize knowledge concerning adult ludic behavior. This article seeks to synthesize existing scholarship on the topic. Drawing on a review of the extensive literature, it may be concluded that adult ludic behavior fulfills not only the functions traditionally attributed to children’s play—such as supporting cognitive and social development or exerting therapeutic effects—but also acquires distinctive characteristics specific to adulthood. It contributes to identity formation and enhances psychological well-being. Furthermore, it may be associated with creativity and spiritual development, as it fosters a mode of thinking rarely employed in other forms of activity, namely mythos-type thinking.
Early maladaptive schemas and value-goals. Analysis in a group of young adults representing Generation Z
Introduction: The aim of the study was to identify the relationships between early maladaptive schemas and preferred life values in a group of young adults from Generation Z. It was hypothesized that schemas, which according to theory are shaped in early childhood, may significantly relate to the value system of young individuals. Method: The study involved 191 individuals aged 18–35 years (M = 22.9; SD = 3.62). The Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ–S3) and the Schwartz Value Survey (PVQ-21) were used. The correlational analysis was exploratory in nature and aimed to identify relationships between types of schemas and values. Results: Moderate relationships were found between schemas and values. Self-enhancement was associated with dominance, severity, and the need for acceptance. Conservation correlated with emotional inhibition and seeking approval. Openness to change was positively related to dominance and negatively to feelings of defectiveness. Self-transcendence was linked to self-sacrifice and the need for acceptance. Conclusions: The obtained results suggest that the value system may be partially rooted in unconscious emotional schemas. This opens new perspectives for the integration of clinical and motivational psychology and practical applications in psychotherapy and education.
Marital satisfaction and parenting styles in One’s Own Family in relation to Occupational Burnout
Objective: The aim of the present study was to examine the relationships between parenting styles adopted by parents toward their children, marital well-being, and the level of occupational burnout. Three hypotheses were formulated: (H1) democratic and liberal-affectionate parenting styles are associated with lower levels of occupational burnout; (H2) autocratic and liberal-non-affectionate parenting styles are associated with higher levels of burnout; and (H3) higher marital well-being co-occurs with lower intensity of occupational burnout. Methods: The study involved 417 married individuals with at least one child (266 women and 151 men), aged between 21 and 63 years (M = 41). The following research instruments were administered: the Marital Quality Questionnaire (KDM-2; M. Plopa & J. Rostowski), the Parenting Styles Analysis – Own Family Questionnaire (M. Ryś), and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI; E. Demerouti et al.; Polish adaptation by T. Chirkowska-Smolak). In the present sample, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients indicated high internal consistency of the applied measures (e.g., intimacy α = 0,88; marital satisfaction α = 0,94; overall OLBI α = 0,83). Although the distribution of the data slightly deviated from normality, as indicated by the Shapiro–Wilk and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests, skewness and kurtosis values remained within the acceptable ±2 range, which justified the use of Pearson’s r correlation coefficients in the hypothesis testing procedure. Results: All three hypotheses were supported empirically. Higher levels of democratic and liberal-affectionate parenting styles were associated with lower levels of occupational burnout, whereas autocratic and liberal-non-affectionate styles showed positive correlations with burnout, with moderate effect sizes observed for the latter relationships. Furthermore, higher marital well-being–reflected in greater intimacy, self-fulfilment, and similarity between partners, alongside lower levels of disappointment–was associated with lower levels of exhaustion and disengagement at work. Conclusions: The findings confirm the interrelationship between family-role functioning and occupational burnout. Parenting styles based on dialogue, empathy, and emotional support, combined with high marital well-being, may constitute protective factors against the negative consequences of chronic occupational stress. From a practical perspective, burnout prevention programmes should incorporate family-related dimensions, including the quality of partner communication, parenting competencies, and mutual emotional support.
The destruction of the material heritage of Jews in post-war Poland in the light of documents concerning the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów
The main purpose of the article is to present the mechanisms involved in the removal of traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland, based on a case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. This was made possible thanks to preserved archival documents— a file titled Sprawy zlikwidowanego cmentarza żydowskiego (ul. Krzywa 18). Dotyczą okresu 1958-87 [Matters of the Liquidated Jewish Cemetery (18 Krzywa Street), covering the years 1958–1987] and stored at the Chorzów City Hall. In addition, the article will present little-known facts concerning the history of the cemetery, its urban layout and architecture, as well as largely unpublished iconographic material. The source analysis employs the traditional scholarly method of historical-interpretative research. Documents—mainly archival—and factual information about the site were collected and then subjected to analysis and interpretation. Iconographic sources—plans, designs, and photographs—were examined and confronted with surviving descriptions and the results of empirical research. Thanks to the preserved archival materials, the legal and administrative mechanisms for removing traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland were reconstructed on the basis of this case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. The article analyzes and cites legal acts and circulars that enabled the expropriation and liquidation of the necropolis, as well as the sale of tombstones and tombstone stone. Based on archival documents, preserved plans, and photographs, the article reconstructs (as far as possible) the appearance of the cemetery and the funeral home prior to their destruction, and then presents the history of their devastation along with photographs taken just before the liquidation.The Jewish cemetery in Chorzów was established around 1864 on Ziegeleistrasse (now Krzywa Street) in Königshütte (now Chorzów). At the end of the 19th century, an impressive funeral house designed by Edmund Trossin (design dated 1898) was erected at the main entrance. Around 1906, the cemetery was expanded to the southwest according to a design by Franz Jaunich. It covered an area of 0.8 hectares and, according to postwar records, contained 1,700 graves with 900 tombstones. In 1959 it was closed, and between 1972 and 1973 it was liquidated. For years it had been systematically destroyed, and only in 2006 was it commemorated by the erection of a monument.
Romantic relationships across generations: a psychological perspective on generations X, Y, and Z
Introduction: Sternberg’s (1988) theory of love identifies passion, intimacy, and commitment as central components of romantic relationship quality. However, contemporary research highlights additional psychological factors influencing relationship satisfaction, such as empathy, openness, sexual satisfaction, communication, financial stability, health, career development, and overall quality of life. The present study aimed to examine generational differences in psychological determinants of romantic relationship quality among individuals from Generations X, Y, and Z. Method: The study was self-report, quantitative and longitudinal. Four standardized instruments with strong psychometric properties were used: the Affective Communication Index (Floyd & Morman, 1998), the Forgiveness Scale (Toussaint et al., 2001), the Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire (Nomejko & Dolińska-Zygmunt, 2011), and the Interpersonal Commitment Questionnaire (Stanley & Markman, 1992), along with a demographic survey. Results: Generation X respondents demonstrated higher quality affective communication, a capacity for forgiveness, and interpersonal commitment. Generation Z respondents, in turn, reported statistically significantly higher sexual satisfaction than Generation X and Y respondents. Conclusions: These findings offer practical implications for couple therapy, particularly in tailoring interventions to the emotional and communicative needs of different age groups. The observed intergenerational differences underscore the importance of flexible, age-sensitive therapeutic approaches aimed at enhancing relationship quality.
Special pedagogy of individuals with intellectual disabilities and contemporary psychiatry – paths of development, interdependencies and contradictions
Intellectual disability is an object of interest in both psychiatry and special pedagogy. Both these sciences have evolved from a stigmatizing approach, through a segregating one, towards full social inclusion. However, the path of paradigmatic reconstruction of either science was separate, and therefore it is interesting to compare them. Aim: The aim of the study is to compare the approach of special educators and psychiatrists from academic centers in Poland to the phenomenon of intellectual disability. Methodology: The comparison was carried out using a narrative method through a review of the key publications on the understanding of the phenomenon of intellectual disability by Polish special educators and psychiatrists. Results: In 1989, Poland underwent a political change and a departure from communism. Pedagogy also moved away from dialectical materialism towards a postmodern understanding of the phenomenon of disability. This change has led the formulation of the so-called humanistic paradigm of special education composed of four micro-paradigms. In pedagogy, the emphasis has been shifted from quantitative to qualitative research and the biomedical aspects of disability have been negated. Unfortunately, the research works in the field of pedagogy of people with intellectual disabilities of a qualitative and conceptual nature conducted in Poland have not entered the global circulation of scientific information and are known only in our country. Polish psychiatry has undergone an evolutionary change from biological psychiatry towards social environmental psychiatry. Poland has been included in a pilot program of running mental health centers providing care to the population with mental disorders, including people with intellectual disabilities. Since the times of real socialism, Polish psychiatrists have been publishing papers in English in international journals with an Impact Factor. This change was less radical than in special pedagogy and consisted in broadening the perspective rather than moving away from empirical research. Conclusion: Polish special education of individuals with intellectual disabilities and Polish psychiatry have undergone a significant paradigmatic reconstruction during the last few decades. Both sciences have adopted an inclusive model of understanding intellectual disability. The different paths of development of either science are reflected in publications and scientific research, as well as in certain terminological differences.
Maladaptive emotion regulation strategies as mediators in the relationship between gaming disorder and psychological pain, depression, and anxiety
Video game use disorder, classified in the ICD-11 as a behavioral addiction (code: 6C51), is characterized by impaired control over gaming, prioritization of gaming over other activities, and continuation despite negative consequences. Affecting an estimated 3.3% of the global population and 3.7% in Poland, it has been linked to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress. Individuals struggling with this disorder often exhibit difficulties in emotion regulation, which may lead to the adoption of maladaptive coping strategies such as rumination, self-blame, or catastrophizing. These strategies not only reinforce problematic gaming behaviors as a means of escaping negative emotional states but may also intensify symptoms of mental health issues. The aim of this study was to examine the role of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between video game use disorder and psychological pain, anxiety, and depression. Methods: The study included 201 Polish computer game players who completed five standardized self-report measures: the IGD-20 (symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder), HADS (symptoms of anxiety and depression), PAS (psychological pain), and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (KPRE; emotion regulation strategies). Mediation models were analyzed in R (version 4.5.1) using the lavaan package with bootstrap confidence interval estimation (5000 samples, 95% CI). Results: Mediation analysis showed that catastrophizing mediated the relationship between Internet Gaming Disorder and all psychopathological variables. Rumination was a significant mediator only for anxiety, while self-blame mediated the relationship with psychological pain. Blaming others did not serve as a significant mediator. Conclusions: The findings confirmed the mediating role of maladaptive self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing strategies in the relationship between computer game use disorder and depression, anxiety, and psychological pain. A stronger mediating effect was observed in the case of psychological pain, suggesting the particular importance of maladaptive emotion regulation in the context of intense emotional suffering. These results highlight the need to address self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing strategies in the treatment of IGD, as well as in the diagnosis and assessment of co-occurring emotional symptoms and suicide risk among gamers. Further exploration of the identified issue is needed.
Silence as a support for adolescent mental health
Contemporary youth is growing up in a reality shaped by noise, excess, and acceleration – both technologically and culturally. This noise is not confined to the acoustic dimension; it encompasses informational, emotional, and social overload that leads to disorientation, fatigue, and a diminished capacity for reflection and mindfulness. Drawing on Byung-Chul Han’s (2022) conceptual framework, this article explores the conditions of youth within the paradigms of the society of exposure, control, dopamine, and intimacy – contexts in which young people are subjected to constant pressure to remain visible, reactive, and permanently present. Particular emphasis is placed on analyzing noise as a phenomenon that transcends sound, manifesting also as informational, emotional, and existential disturbance. Such pervasive noise destabilizes identity development and weakens the ability to engage in self-reflection. In this context, silence is proposed as both a pedagogical and existential alternative – a space that not only offers respite from overstimulation but also enables profound experiences of presence, relationality, and meaning. The text presents silence as a developmental resource that can serve regulatory, supportive, and transformative functions – psychologically as well as educationally. Drawing on contemporary pedagogical theories and a psychosocial-cultural framework, the article highlights silence’s potential in cultivating resilience, grounded subjectivity, and emotional robustness. Silence is depicted as a space for pause, internal organization, and contact with personal experience – thereby supporting the development of reflectivity, agency, and emotional competence. Practices of silence are described as a tool for educational mental health prevention, not only at the individual level but also within communal dimensions. From a pedagogical standpoint, silence is not a lack of action but rather an intentional educational environment which – within a world of incessant noise, excess, and digital stimulation – facilitates cognitive, emotional, and existential processes. It enables deeper learning, the development of self-awareness, and the creation of spaces for encountering the Other without the violence of words or the pressure of constant communication. The article advocates for recognizing silence as an integral element of educational practice, particularly within the context of youth mental health promotion. It argues for the implementation of silence not only as a concrete pedagogical strategy but also as a shift in educational paradigm – towards greater attentiveness, presence, and humanistic care.
Professional independence of midwives: Analysis of determining factors
The professionalisation of the midwifery profession is a key process both from the perspective of the professional group itself and the quality of healthcare provided to women and their families. By definition, professionalisation is a collective strategy undertaken by a professional group to achieve recognised status and autonomy. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) emphasise the importance of education, legal regulations and strong professional organisations as pillars of this process. Despite global efforts, the pace of professionalisation is uneven – midwives in highly developed countries often function as independent specialists, while in many lower-income countries they lack access to formal education, licensing and systemic recognition. One of the most important indicators of professionalisation is professional autonomy, understood as the ability to make clinical decisions, provide continuous care and assume professional responsibility. The development of this autonomy is influenced by both systemic (legal, organisational) and psychosocial factors, including internal motivation, self-efficacy and the work environment. Generational differences also play an important role – younger generations of midwives (e.g. Generation Z) have higher expectations of autonomy and work-life balance, but also a higher risk of burnout and job insecurity. The aim of this article is to analyse the professional autonomy of midwives as a key factor in the professionalisation process, taking into account educational, psychological, generational and systemic conditions, with particular reference to the situation in Poland.
Underage women’s experiences of pregnancy and childbirth and the attitudes of health professionals – a qualitative study
Introduction and Aim: Adolescent pregnancy carries significant medical, psychological, and social implications. Young maternal age is associated with an increased risk of perinatal complications and may expose underage patients to stigmatization and inappropriate treatment within healthcare settings. The aim of this study was to explore and analyze the experiences of pregnant minors in the context of healthcare professionals’ attitudes and behaviors toward them. Materials and Methods: A qualitative design was used, based on semi-structured interviews. The study included eight women aged 19–23 who had given birth to their first child before turning 18. Eligibility required that childbirth had occurred within the previous five years. Data were collected between March 2024 and February 2025. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, anonymized, and analyzed using content analysis. Results: Participants reported both positive and negative interactions with medical staff. More than half felt stigmatized due to their young age, and several described insufficient information regarding their own health or that of their newborn. Support from close relatives proved crucial for their sense of safety and emotional stability. Early motherhood was perceived as an ambivalent experience that was both challenging and personally transformative. Conclusions: The attitudes of healthcare professionals toward underage patients were inconsistent and often failed to meet standards of respectful, empathetic obstetric care. There is a clear need to increase awareness and strengthen the preparedness of healthcare personnel to work with this vulnerable patient group, as well as to improve access to prenatal education for pregnant minors.
Attitudes of women with reproductive problems towards pregnancy and childbirth and their life satisfaction
Abstract: Introduction: Infertility is defined as the failure to conceive after 12 months of regular unprotected intercourse (3-4 times per week). Objective: The aim of this study was to assess life satisfaction and attitudes toward pregnancy and childbirth among women undergoing infertility treatment. Materials and methods: The study involved 103 women treated for infertility. Data were collected using a diagnostic survey, including a self-designed questionnaire and two standardized tools: the Test for Assessing Women’s Attitudes Toward Pregnancy and Childbirth, and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Results: The average score for attitudes toward pregnancy was M = 23.18 (SD = 3.35), with scores ranging from 15 to 32 points. For attitudes toward childbirth, the mean score was higher at M = 26.11 (SD = 4.36), ranging from 10 to 36 points. The mean SWLS score was M = 22.34 (SD = 6.11), with scores between 10 and 35 points. A significant negative correlation was found between duration of attempts to conceive and life satisfaction (r = -0.250; p = 0.011). A weaker but significant negative correlation was observed for attitude toward pregnancy (r = -0.216; p = 0.029). Significant differences were found in attitudes toward pregnancy across groups (H = 13.95; p = 0.003). Differences in attitudes toward childbirth by age groups showed a statistical trend (H = 7.156; p = 0.067). Conclusions: Women undergoing infertility treatment showed varied but generally average life satisfaction levels. Most women had positive attitudes toward pregnancy and childbirth. Prolonged infertility treatment was associated with a decrease in overall life satisfaction among respondents.
The problem of medically assisted suicide in Italy in the years 2024-2025
The main purpose of the article is to present an ethical and legal analysis of the dispute over medically assisted suicide in Italy. In early July 2025, a bill was submitted to the country’s Parliament to regulate the termination of life on request. The legislative initiative represents yet another stage in the intense public debate over medical aid in dying that has been going on in Italy for several decades. One of its major milestones was the enactment in 2017 of the Law on living wills, which consists of an anticipatory expression of will by an adult or legal guardian – made while enjoying full mental capacity – concerning the possible undertaking or abandonment in the future of various medical therapies and treatments which the individual wishes or does not wish to consent to. The adoption of the Living Will Law has significantly revived the debate on the criteria for terminating life on request. In 2019, the Italian Constitutional Court ruled that Italian residents have the right to receive medical assistance in suicide. In order to gain access to such a medical procedure, several requirements must be met: the person must suffer from an irrecoverable disease that causes physical or mental suffering qualifying as unbearable; he or she must be fully capable of making free and informed decisions; and ultimately must receive life-sustaining treatment. In recent years, some circles in Italy have been pushing for the liberalization of these regulations, advocating for the abolition of the life-sustaining treatments criterion. In 2024, the Constitutional Court and the National Committee for Bioethics spoke out on the matter. The Italian bioethics dispute over medically assisted suicide touches on a number of important issues at the intersection of law and ethics. Analyses presented in the article demonstrate that the most important elements of this debate concern the understanding of the dignity of human life, the relationship that exists between law and morality, and the limits of our freedom.
Experiencing mobbing as a moderator of the relationship between self-esteem and achievement motivation
Introduction: This empirical study aimed to examine the relationship between self-esteem and achievement motivation, to determine whether differences exist in self-esteem and achievement motivation levels between individuals who have experienced mobbing and those who have not, and to analyse whether experiencing mobbing moderates the relationship between achievement motivation and self-esteem. The findings of this study may be useful for designing employee support programmes, particularly for individuals experiencing reduced self-esteem and exposure to mobbing. The results of the analysis also highlight the need to implement preventive and intervention measures aimed at reducing the incidence of mobbing. Methods: The study involved 529 participants, of whom 107 were classified as individuals experiencing mobbing, based on their scores on the MDM Questionnaire. Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), while achievement motivation was assessed using the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Wojdyło & Retowski, Polish adaptation). Results: The results of the correlational analyses indicated that higher self-esteem was associated with a higher intensity of mastery-approach motivation, whereas avoidance motivation was negatively correlated with self-esteem. The analyses of group differences revealed that individuals who experienced mobbing demonstrated significantly lower self-esteem and higher levels of avoidance motivation compared to those not exposed to mobbing. However, the moderation analyses did not confirm the hypothesis regarding the moderating role of mobbing. Experiencing mobbing did not significantly affect the strength or direction of the relationship between achievement motivation and self-esteem. Although the observed correlations were statistically significant, their effect sizes were relatively small, which may suggest the complexity of the psychological mechanisms linking self-esteem and achievement motivation. Conclusions: The results suggest that self-esteem may serve as a stable regulatory mechanism, operating independently of negative environmental influences. Nevertheless, mobbing itself exerts a detrimental impact on both self-esteem and motivation. The findings of this study emphasise the need for further, in-depth research on mediating and protective factors within the context of mobbing. Moreover, the results have important implications for human resource management practice, underscoring the role of managers in identifying manifestations of mobbing and implementing systemic measures aimed at safeguarding employees and fostering a supportive organisational climate.
achievement motivation, mobbing, self-esteem
Factors influencing the regularity of the menstrual cycle in Polish university female students
Introduction: The regularity of the menstrual cycle is one of the key indicators of procreation health. The frequency of menstruation disorders in young women, including students, may result from various socio-demographic and lifestyle-related factors. The aim of the study was to examine whether the regularity of Polish female students’ menstrual cycles depended on selected socio-demographic variables and their lifestyle. Material and method: The study involved 490 Polish female university students over the age of 18, representing various fields of study. The study was carried out in the form of an anonymous online questionnaire from November 2022 to March 2023. A diagnostic survey method was used, employing a bespoke questionnaire. Socio-demographic data, lifestyle (for example, sleep, physical activity, stress, drugs), characteristics of the menstrual cycle and the occurrence of accompanying symptoms were analysed. Statistical analysis was performed (chi-square test, p < 0.05). Results: 30% of participants reported irregular menstrual cycles. Among the analysed variables, only the year of studies (p = 0.024), smoking (p = 0.006) and eating breakfast every day (p = 0.014) showed a statistically significant relationship with the cycle regularity. Students in higher years of their studies, non-smokers and those who ate breakfast every day were more likely to report regular menstruation. Conclusions: Nearly one in three students had irregular menstruation cycles, which may indicate actual and potential health problems. Therefore, it is necessary to identify factors related to irregular menstruation to determine appropriate preventive and remedial strategies. Irregular menstrual cycles were significantly more common among respondents who were in their first years of studies. The rest analysed socio-demographic variables did not differentiate the group of study participants. Smoking tobacco and skipping breakfast were strongly associated with irregular menstruation, which highlights the importance of modifiable lifestyle factors in the prevention and promotion of procreation health.
Sleep disorders in women during the menopausal transition – a narrative literature review
Sleep, defined as a reversible neurobehavioral state regulated by circadian rhythms, is essential for health. Sleep disorders, especially during the perimenopausal period (age 45– 55), are a significant health problem, affecting up to 60% of women during this period. These women often report a deterioration in sleep quality, frequent awakenings, and chronic feelings of sleep deprivation. This narrative literature review synthesizes current scientific reports on the biological, physical, and psychosocial mechanisms underlying these complaints. The etiopathogenesis of sleep disorders is multifactorial, with hormonal changes considered to be the main cause. Fluctuations and decreases in estrogen and progesterone (and its metabolite allopregnanolone) are directly associated with a deterioration in sleep structure, a decrease in sleep efficiency, and disruption of the circadian rhythm, including the action of melatonin. Estrogen deficiency may also increase the risk of sleep-disordered breathing. The clinical picture is dominated by insomnia, the main symptoms of which are difficulty staying asleep and prolonged wakefulness after falling asleep. The review lists vasomotor symptoms, mood disorders (anxiety and depression), and nocturia resulting from hormonal dysregulation affecting bladder capacity and urine production at night as secondary factors of insomnia. In addition, an increase in the frequency of primary disorders, including obstructive sleep apnea and restless legs syndrome, is observed during the perimenopausal period. Sleep disorders are often underestimated and undiagnosed, which contributes to the deterioration of mental health and professional functioning and increases the risk of chronic diseases and injuries (e.g., falls). The level of knowledge about proper sleep hygiene among women is generally low. The conclusions of the review point to the multidimensional nature of the problem and the need for a holistic, interprofessional, team-based approach to improve the quality of life for women during the menopausal transition.
Psychometric evaluation of the family APGAR Scale in a Polish population: Reliability, validity, and factor structure
The main objective of the study was to adapt the Family APGAR by Smilkstein to the Polish reality and check its reliability and validity for the purpose of the diagnostic properties of this tool and scientific research. FAPGAR is a self-descriptive, paper-pencil type questionnaire. It consists of five statements concerning the functioning of the family in five domains: Adaptability, Partnership, Growth, Affection and Resolve. 312 adults (156 women and 156 men) in married couples from one year to 35 years of married life were studied. The studies also used the Spanier’s Dyadic Adjustment Scale (abbr. DAS) and the Family Rating Scale (abbr. SOR) based on Flexibility and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (abbr. FACES-IV) by Olson. The validity and reliability of the scale were analysed by appropriate statistical methods. The results obtained with its assistance are significantly correlated with the results of measuring the functioning of the family by other methods. It can be concluded that FAPGAR has obtained satisfactory indicators of reliability and relevance. The results showed that FAPGAR can be used in the Polish market for both scientific research and clinical work. It may be particularly useful for physicians and health care professionals for screening and initial diagnosis of the functioning of patients.
The Polish adaptation of the Blood Donor Identity Survey
The present study aimed to culturally adapt and validate the Polish version of the Blood Donor Identity Survey (BDIS-PL), a multidimensional tool grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) for assessing motivational profiles of blood donors. Despite increasing public health concerns over declining donor numbers in Poland, psychological research in this area remains limited. The BDIS fills a critical gap by capturing six types of motivational regulation: amotivation, external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. A total of 665 Polish participants completed the BDIS-PL, along with personality and prosocial orientation measures (NEO-PI-R subscales and the Light Triad Scale). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the original six-factor structure (CFI = .93; RMSEA = .08), and all subscales demonstrated acceptable to high internal consistency (α = .66–.88). Metric, but not scalar, measurement invariance was supported across gender. Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed via multitrait–multimethod matrix analyses, showing expected correlations between motivation types and personality traits. Motivational profiles significantly differentiated between active donors, former donors, and non-donors: active donors displayed significantly higher levels of internalized motivation (identified, integrated, intrinsic) and lower amotivation. These findings support the psychometric robustness of the BDIS-PL and highlight the importance of internalized motivation for sustained blood donation. The tool offers valuable insights for designing targeted interventions to enhance donor retention and recruitment in Poland, particularly by fostering autonomous forms of motivation. This study provides cross-cultural validation of the BDIS and reinforces the utility of SDT in health-related behavior research.
Men’s mental health in the context of hegemonic norms of masculinity: A developmental and interdisciplinary literature review
This article is a review and provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the relationship between socio-cultural constructions of masculinity and men’s mental health in the current state of research. The aim of the study is to identify the mechanisms through which hegemonic patterns of masculinity influence the emotional functioning of individuals, as well as to indicate the possibilities for transforming these patterns through educational and self-educational activities. The authors analyze masculinity norms as social constructs that reinforce patterns of behavior promoting independence, strength, emotional restraint, and distance from one’s own psychological difficulties. From a pedagogical perspective, attention is drawn to the need to redefine dominant models of masculinity towards patterns that support the development of reflectiveness, empathy, and readiness to take pro-health actions, including seeking psychological help. In order to formulate conclusions, a systematic review of the scientific literature available in key databases was conducted: PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The search was based on logical combinations of keywords related to masculinity, mental health, cultural gender, upbringing, and emotional expression. The analysis of the collected material confirms the existence of a strong link between the internalization of traditional models of masculinity and a limited ability to recognize and express emotions, a reluctance to seek professional support, and the reinforcement of beliefs that hinder adaptive mental functioning. There is a growing need to create educational and upbringing environments that will foster the development of masculinity as an open, flexible construct integrated with the well-being of the individual. The article presents a proposal for emotional life pedagogy as an area of influence that supports men’s mental health and strengthens their relational and psychosocial capital. The conclusions drawn from the analysis can form the basis for the design of educational programs and social strategies aimed at supporting men in the process of identity building in accordance with the values of a contemporary, multidimensional model of health.