Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio is an interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing original, high-quality research articles in the fields of social sciences, family studies, medical and health sciences, humanities, as well as theology and arts, while also appreciating an interdisciplinary approach in these fields. The journal has been published continuously since 2010, providing open access to articles by both Polish and international authors. It is published by the Academic's Society Fides et Ratio Foundation. Each of the issues of the Quarterly in the annual cycle focuses on the following thematic areas: Love, Marriage, and Family: An Interdisciplinary Approach Dialogue and Communication: An Interdisciplinary Approach Life and Fertility: An Interdisciplinary Approach Exploring Science, Religion, Society, Culture And Art In The Human Journey: An Interdisciplinary Approach Journal Metrics: 70 points in the List of Journals of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland).
Age of sexual initiation, attitudes towards sexuality, and marital relationships in adulthood
Introduction: The age of sexual initiation constitutes a significant formative factor for so-called sexual scripts and is linked to the quality of intimate relationships formed in the future. Researchers indicate that early sexual debut may be associated with a risk of permissiveness and relationship instability, whereas later initiation fosters the formation of higher quality and more stable marital unions. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between the age of sexual initiation and the quality of marital relationships in adulthood, as well as to verify the hypothesis regarding the mediating role of attitudes towards sexuality in this process. Method: The study involved a group of 455 young adults (222 men and 233 women) aged 20–35 who were in marital relationships. A diagnostic survey model was employed using six standardized research tools (measuring attachment/bonding, love, communication, mate selection, sexual satisfaction, and global relationship quality) and an original questionnaire regarding attitudes and sexual biography. Correlational analyses, difference tests, and mediation analysis were used to verify the hypotheses. Results: The research showed that a later age of initiation co-occurs with a lower number of sexual partners and a higher level of maturity regarding attitudes towards sexuality. The direct link between the age of initiation and marital quality proved to be weak. A key finding is the confirmation of mediation: the relationship between the age of initiation and the quality of the marital relationship disappears when attitudes are taken into account, and attitudes towards sexuality play a significant mediating role in the relationship between the age of initiation and marital relationship quality. This indicates that individuals with mature attitudes (integrating the sensual sexual sphere with the emotional and evaluative ones), regardless of the age of initiation, form more satisfying relationships, although these attitudes correlate more frequently with later sexual initiation. Conclusions: The study revealed that the direct relationship between the age of initiation and marital relationship quality is weak and loses statistical significance after accounting for attitudes towards sexuality (mediation effect). This means that early initiation does not directly determine lower marital relationship quality in adulthood, but rather acts indirectly – through its association with the formation of immature, instrumental attitudes towards sexuality. It is these attitudes, rather than the biographical fact from the past itself, that constitute the key predictor of current marital quality, particularly in the dimensions of perceived mate selection and emotional bonding. The results suggest that the negative consequences of early initiation can be mitigated by shaping mature, integrated attitudes towards sexuality in young people.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Family ties as an essential element of the Catholic family vocation
In its doctrine on marriage and the family, the Catholic Church focuses on what it means to be (in terms of the vocation to holiness) a good parent, child, grandparent, brother, sister, etc. However, even if the norms, etc., or in other words, the “duties and privileges” promulgated by the Magisterium of the Church in relation to the Catholic family, result from its supernatural origin (described by theology and ethics), it should be emphasized that the very nature of the fact of giving birth to a child (i.e., having offspring), there is an (essential) obligation to protect and promote the family thus created in the world. Accordingly, the “marital and family” norms established for this purpose, a particularly important collection of which can be found in the Code of Canon Law (hereinafter: CIC/83), cover a very wide range of human existence. It can be said that they begin with determining which related persons are not allowed to marry and end with matters of same-sex relationships or free unions. However, existential situations are so complex and changeable that they often suggest the need for further clarification of previous determinations. This also applies to matters related to kinship. For example, the CIC/83 does not provide a general definition of a Catholic family (i.e., in a single canon). However, such an attempt can be found in the pastoral constitution Gaudium et spes (cf. nos. 48-49). In particular, when it states that: “By their very nature, the institution of marriage and conjugal love are oriented toward the procreation and education of offspring” (cf. no. 48). The same applies to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (cf. nos. 2201-2206), the exhortation Familiaris Consortio (FC. no. 18), etc. Therefore, it seems that a normative clarification of the concept of the Catholic family, particularly in terms of relationships arising from kinship (e.g., by introducing such a definition into the CIC/83), could help to better understand and further refine pastoral discipline in this area.
The mediating roles of fear of intimacy and sexual communication in the relationship between alexithymia and sexual satisfaction among young men
Sexual satisfaction is an important indicator of sexual health and relationship functioning, yet young men who have difficulties recognizing and expressing emotions may experience lower satisfaction in their intimate lives. The present study addressed the research problem of whether and how alexithymia relates to sexual satisfaction in young heterosexual men by testing fear of intimacy and sexual communication as sequential mechanisms. In an online cross-sectional survey, 153 men aged 18–30 years who were in a romantic relationship (≥ 6 months) completed measures of alexithymia (TAS-20), fear of intimacy (FIS), sexual communication self-efficacy (SCSES), and sexual satisfaction (SSS). It was hypothesized that higher alexithymia would be associated with greater fear of intimacy, which would be linked to lower sexual communication, and in turn to lower sexual satisfaction. Serial mediation analyses (PROCESS Model 6, bootstrapping) supported the hypothesized pathway: alexithymia was indirectly related to sexual satisfaction through increased fear of intimacy and reduced sexual communication. The direct association between alexithymia and sexual satisfaction was attenuated after accounting for the mediators. The model explained 38% of the variance in sexual satisfaction. These findings suggest that intimacy-related avoidance and difficulties in sexual communication may explain why alexithymia undermines sexual satisfaction, highlighting potential targets for prevention and couple-focused interventions.
Ressentiment as a silent destroyer of romantic relationships: The importance of attachment styles and life satisfaction in the context of relationship duration
Partner relationships play a key role in human functioning, being an important source of emotional support, security, and a sense of belonging. Contemporary psychological research increasingly focuses on the factors determining the quality and durability of relationships, among which particular importance is attributed to attachment styles and less to the phenomenon of ressentiment. Attachment styles, formed in early relational experience, determine the ways of regulating closeness, trust, and dependence in partner relationships. On the other hand, ressentiment, understood as a relatively permanent emotional and cognitive disposition of a hidden nature, can act as a “silent destructor” of the relationship, influencing the interpretation of the partner’s behaviour, the emotions experienced and the subjective assessment of the relationship. The paper aims to show the relationship between attachment styles, the level of ressentiment and life satisfaction in relationships of different seniority. The study included 144 people (72 women and 72 men) in partnerships, with two groups separated: people in relationships lasting up to 7 years and over 7 years. The Attachment Styles Questionnaire (KSP) by M. Plopa was used in the research (2008), the Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS) by E. Diener and colleagues, and in the Polish adaptation Z. Juczyński (2001) and the Ressentiment Questionnaire (KRe-Psy) developed by M.G. Karbowski (2025). The results indicate that both attachment styles and the level of ressentiment are significantly associated with life satisfaction in a partnership, regardless of its duration. Ressentiment manifests itself as a correlate that lowers the quality of relationships, co-occurring especially with non-secure attachment styles. In relationships with more than 7 years of experience, higher relational satisfaction is associated with a lower severity of the key components of ressentiment – reluctance (ρ = −0.781), contempt (ρ = −0.802), and regret (ρ = −0.603) – suggesting that as the quality of relationships decreases, persistent forms of hostility and feelings of harm increase. This means that in long-term relationships, ressentiment takes on a relatively chronic character and is associated with a lower rating of the relationship. On the other hand, in relationships up to 7 years of age, relational satisfaction has the lowest level in connection with revenge (ρ = −0.832) and jealousy (ρ = −0.541), while other manifestations of ressentiment are uncorrelated with the quality of the relationship. The results of the study emphasise the universal importance of the analysed variables in and the need for further research, especially of a longitudinal nature, enabling a better understanding of the dynamics of these relationships during the duration of the relationship.
The use of social network analysis (SNA) in educational psychology
The aim of this article is to present the possibilities offered by Social Network Analysis (SNA) in educational psychology research. The first part discusses the general principles of the network approach, with a particular focus on social networks. This is followed by a presentation of selected features of network data and a review of the most important analytical techniques, both descriptive and inferential, offered by network analysis. The final section gives examples of the use of SNA in educational psychology research published in the last few years. The discussion in the article concludes with the thesis that the contribution of SNA to the analysis of variables in the field of educational psychology seems particularly interesting. This alternative way of understanding and analysing data from the field of educational psychology, opens up new possibilities for exploring issues, as it allows a slightly different way of modelling and analysing relationships between variables, designing new strategies for psycho-educational interventions or better explaining the aetiology of certain phenomena. SNA can therefore respond to the needs of both psychologists academically involved in education as well as psychologists-practitioners.
Copyright (c) 2025 Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Obesogens in food as a health risk for obesity
Modern society is confronted on a daily basis with the problem of obesity, which is one of the greatest threats of the 21st century. Factors in the development of obesity are well known, although one of the lesser-known but equally important factors is exposure to chemicals called obesogens. These compounds are found in cosmetics, food and plastics, among others, and exposure can occur through the skin, the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract. The results of many studies highlight the need for increased control and regulation of chemicals contained in consumer products. Understanding the role of obesogens as a factor in the development of obesity can help formulate better and more effective prevention and treatment strategies, which is crucial for public health.
The interplay between local and global culture. Areas of conflict and areas of synergy
The processes of globalisation, which have accelerated since the last decade of the 20th century, have had an impact on the formation of both national and local culture. Their impact, however, has been very ambiguous and perceived in various ways. Local and national cultures have also had an impact on global processes: global culture is now shaped not only by dominant civilisations or great nations. To some extent, everyone participates in this process – all cultures. On the one hand, we can see the mutual reinforcement of local and global processes, and on the other hand, more noticeable today, we see tensions between what is local and what is global. These struggles permeate social reality in various spheres and at various levels. The aim of this article is to identify the most common areas of conflict and synergy, to determine their sources and nature, and then attempt to discuss and present a new perspective on these mutual relationships in order to eliminate as many areas of conflict as possible.
From the light triad to the dark tetrad: Two sides of human nature in the context of life and health, considering cognitive reflection and generosity
This article reviews research on two contrasting groups of personality traits – from the so-called light triad (including faith in humanity, humanism, and Kantianism) to the so-called Dark Tetrad (including Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadistic tendencies). The light triad encompasses empathy, trust, and prosocial attitudes, whereas the Dark Tetrad describes individuals who are manipulative, antagonistic, and lacking in empathy. The article also examines the role of cognitive reflection and generosity in shaping prosocial decisions and moral judgments. The review includes both empirical (quantitative and qualitative) studies and key theoretical works. It cites and discusses findings from correlational and experimental psychological research, including behavioral economic games (considering the role of cognitive reflection) and population-level analyses (e.g., profiling voluntary blood donors and examining altruism in the context of volunteering). The relationships between light triad and Dark Tetrad traits and prosocial behaviors (generosity, altruism) are analyzed, along with aspects of individuals’ health (e.g., health-promoting habits). The article describes definitions of these constructs and research findings indicating, among other things, that individuals with light triad traits exhibit greater empathy, altruism, and life satisfaction, whereas those with Dark Tetrad traits are characterized by a lack of empathy and a tendency toward aggressive or manipulative behaviors. The findings also demonstrate a bidirectional influence of cognitive reflection: when helping others entails personal cost, reflective thinkers behave more selfishly than impulsive ones; however, when altruism carries no personal loss, reflective individuals are more generous and helpful. A study of voluntary blood donors further shows that generosity is strongly correlated with both cognitive and emotional empathy, as well as with a health-promoting lifestyle. The review indicates that the light triad and its associated values (empathy, trust, altruism) promote mental health, better social relationships, and greater life satisfaction. In turn, the dominance of Dark Tetrad traits is associated with antisocial behaviors, social isolation, and reduced psychosocial well-being. Promoting empathy and generosity can benefit individuals and society, whereas strong “dark” traits are linked to negative psychosocial consequences. The article discusses key conclusions and practical implications (e.g., for parenting and public health) and offers suggested directions for future research on the bright and dark aspects of human personality.
Early maladaptive schemas and value-goals. Analysis in a group of young adults representing Generation Z
Introduction: The aim of the study was to identify the relationships between early maladaptive schemas and preferred life values in a group of young adults from Generation Z. It was hypothesized that schemas, which according to theory are shaped in early childhood, may significantly relate to the value system of young individuals. Method: The study involved 191 individuals aged 18–35 years (M = 22.9; SD = 3.62). The Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ–S3) and the Schwartz Value Survey (PVQ-21) were used. The correlational analysis was exploratory in nature and aimed to identify relationships between types of schemas and values. Results: Moderate relationships were found between schemas and values. Self-enhancement was associated with dominance, severity, and the need for acceptance. Conservation correlated with emotional inhibition and seeking approval. Openness to change was positively related to dominance and negatively to feelings of defectiveness. Self-transcendence was linked to self-sacrifice and the need for acceptance. Conclusions: The obtained results suggest that the value system may be partially rooted in unconscious emotional schemas. This opens new perspectives for the integration of clinical and motivational psychology and practical applications in psychotherapy and education.
The destruction of the material heritage of Jews in post-war Poland in the light of documents concerning the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów
The main purpose of the article is to present the mechanisms involved in the removal of traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland, based on a case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. This was made possible thanks to preserved archival documents— a file titled Sprawy zlikwidowanego cmentarza żydowskiego (ul. Krzywa 18). Dotyczą okresu 1958-87 [Matters of the Liquidated Jewish Cemetery (18 Krzywa Street), covering the years 1958–1987] and stored at the Chorzów City Hall. In addition, the article will present little-known facts concerning the history of the cemetery, its urban layout and architecture, as well as largely unpublished iconographic material. The source analysis employs the traditional scholarly method of historical-interpretative research. Documents—mainly archival—and factual information about the site were collected and then subjected to analysis and interpretation. Iconographic sources—plans, designs, and photographs—were examined and confronted with surviving descriptions and the results of empirical research. Thanks to the preserved archival materials, the legal and administrative mechanisms for removing traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland were reconstructed on the basis of this case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. The article analyzes and cites legal acts and circulars that enabled the expropriation and liquidation of the necropolis, as well as the sale of tombstones and tombstone stone. Based on archival documents, preserved plans, and photographs, the article reconstructs (as far as possible) the appearance of the cemetery and the funeral home prior to their destruction, and then presents the history of their devastation along with photographs taken just before the liquidation.The Jewish cemetery in Chorzów was established around 1864 on Ziegeleistrasse (now Krzywa Street) in Königshütte (now Chorzów). At the end of the 19th century, an impressive funeral house designed by Edmund Trossin (design dated 1898) was erected at the main entrance. Around 1906, the cemetery was expanded to the southwest according to a design by Franz Jaunich. It covered an area of 0.8 hectares and, according to postwar records, contained 1,700 graves with 900 tombstones. In 1959 it was closed, and between 1972 and 1973 it was liquidated. For years it had been systematically destroyed, and only in 2006 was it commemorated by the erection of a monument.
Romantic relationships across generations: a psychological perspective on generations X, Y, and Z
Introduction: Sternberg’s (1988) theory of love identifies passion, intimacy, and commitment as central components of romantic relationship quality. However, contemporary research highlights additional psychological factors influencing relationship satisfaction, such as empathy, openness, sexual satisfaction, communication, financial stability, health, career development, and overall quality of life. The present study aimed to examine generational differences in psychological determinants of romantic relationship quality among individuals from Generations X, Y, and Z. Method: The study was self-report, quantitative and longitudinal. Four standardized instruments with strong psychometric properties were used: the Affective Communication Index (Floyd & Morman, 1998), the Forgiveness Scale (Toussaint et al., 2001), the Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire (Nomejko & Dolińska-Zygmunt, 2011), and the Interpersonal Commitment Questionnaire (Stanley & Markman, 1992), along with a demographic survey. Results: Generation X respondents demonstrated higher quality affective communication, a capacity for forgiveness, and interpersonal commitment. Generation Z respondents, in turn, reported statistically significantly higher sexual satisfaction than Generation X and Y respondents. Conclusions: These findings offer practical implications for couple therapy, particularly in tailoring interventions to the emotional and communicative needs of different age groups. The observed intergenerational differences underscore the importance of flexible, age-sensitive therapeutic approaches aimed at enhancing relationship quality.
Maladaptive emotion regulation strategies as mediators in the relationship between gaming disorder and psychological pain, depression, and anxiety
Video game use disorder, classified in the ICD-11 as a behavioral addiction (code: 6C51), is characterized by impaired control over gaming, prioritization of gaming over other activities, and continuation despite negative consequences. Affecting an estimated 3.3% of the global population and 3.7% in Poland, it has been linked to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress. Individuals struggling with this disorder often exhibit difficulties in emotion regulation, which may lead to the adoption of maladaptive coping strategies such as rumination, self-blame, or catastrophizing. These strategies not only reinforce problematic gaming behaviors as a means of escaping negative emotional states but may also intensify symptoms of mental health issues. The aim of this study was to examine the role of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between video game use disorder and psychological pain, anxiety, and depression. Methods: The study included 201 Polish computer game players who completed five standardized self-report measures: the IGD-20 (symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder), HADS (symptoms of anxiety and depression), PAS (psychological pain), and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (KPRE; emotion regulation strategies). Mediation models were analyzed in R (version 4.5.1) using the lavaan package with bootstrap confidence interval estimation (5000 samples, 95% CI). Results: Mediation analysis showed that catastrophizing mediated the relationship between Internet Gaming Disorder and all psychopathological variables. Rumination was a significant mediator only for anxiety, while self-blame mediated the relationship with psychological pain. Blaming others did not serve as a significant mediator. Conclusions: The findings confirmed the mediating role of maladaptive self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing strategies in the relationship between computer game use disorder and depression, anxiety, and psychological pain. A stronger mediating effect was observed in the case of psychological pain, suggesting the particular importance of maladaptive emotion regulation in the context of intense emotional suffering. These results highlight the need to address self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing strategies in the treatment of IGD, as well as in the diagnosis and assessment of co-occurring emotional symptoms and suicide risk among gamers. Further exploration of the identified issue is needed.
Silence as a support for adolescent mental health
Contemporary youth is growing up in a reality shaped by noise, excess, and acceleration – both technologically and culturally. This noise is not confined to the acoustic dimension; it encompasses informational, emotional, and social overload that leads to disorientation, fatigue, and a diminished capacity for reflection and mindfulness. Drawing on Byung-Chul Han’s (2022) conceptual framework, this article explores the conditions of youth within the paradigms of the society of exposure, control, dopamine, and intimacy – contexts in which young people are subjected to constant pressure to remain visible, reactive, and permanently present. Particular emphasis is placed on analyzing noise as a phenomenon that transcends sound, manifesting also as informational, emotional, and existential disturbance. Such pervasive noise destabilizes identity development and weakens the ability to engage in self-reflection. In this context, silence is proposed as both a pedagogical and existential alternative – a space that not only offers respite from overstimulation but also enables profound experiences of presence, relationality, and meaning. The text presents silence as a developmental resource that can serve regulatory, supportive, and transformative functions – psychologically as well as educationally. Drawing on contemporary pedagogical theories and a psychosocial-cultural framework, the article highlights silence’s potential in cultivating resilience, grounded subjectivity, and emotional robustness. Silence is depicted as a space for pause, internal organization, and contact with personal experience – thereby supporting the development of reflectivity, agency, and emotional competence. Practices of silence are described as a tool for educational mental health prevention, not only at the individual level but also within communal dimensions. From a pedagogical standpoint, silence is not a lack of action but rather an intentional educational environment which – within a world of incessant noise, excess, and digital stimulation – facilitates cognitive, emotional, and existential processes. It enables deeper learning, the development of self-awareness, and the creation of spaces for encountering the Other without the violence of words or the pressure of constant communication. The article advocates for recognizing silence as an integral element of educational practice, particularly within the context of youth mental health promotion. It argues for the implementation of silence not only as a concrete pedagogical strategy but also as a shift in educational paradigm – towards greater attentiveness, presence, and humanistic care.
Professional independence of midwives: Analysis of determining factors
The professionalisation of the midwifery profession is a key process both from the perspective of the professional group itself and the quality of healthcare provided to women and their families. By definition, professionalisation is a collective strategy undertaken by a professional group to achieve recognised status and autonomy. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) emphasise the importance of education, legal regulations and strong professional organisations as pillars of this process. Despite global efforts, the pace of professionalisation is uneven – midwives in highly developed countries often function as independent specialists, while in many lower-income countries they lack access to formal education, licensing and systemic recognition. One of the most important indicators of professionalisation is professional autonomy, understood as the ability to make clinical decisions, provide continuous care and assume professional responsibility. The development of this autonomy is influenced by both systemic (legal, organisational) and psychosocial factors, including internal motivation, self-efficacy and the work environment. Generational differences also play an important role – younger generations of midwives (e.g. Generation Z) have higher expectations of autonomy and work-life balance, but also a higher risk of burnout and job insecurity. The aim of this article is to analyse the professional autonomy of midwives as a key factor in the professionalisation process, taking into account educational, psychological, generational and systemic conditions, with particular reference to the situation in Poland.
Underage women’s experiences of pregnancy and childbirth and the attitudes of health professionals – a qualitative study
Introduction and Aim: Adolescent pregnancy carries significant medical, psychological, and social implications. Young maternal age is associated with an increased risk of perinatal complications and may expose underage patients to stigmatization and inappropriate treatment within healthcare settings. The aim of this study was to explore and analyze the experiences of pregnant minors in the context of healthcare professionals’ attitudes and behaviors toward them. Materials and Methods: A qualitative design was used, based on semi-structured interviews. The study included eight women aged 19–23 who had given birth to their first child before turning 18. Eligibility required that childbirth had occurred within the previous five years. Data were collected between March 2024 and February 2025. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, anonymized, and analyzed using content analysis. Results: Participants reported both positive and negative interactions with medical staff. More than half felt stigmatized due to their young age, and several described insufficient information regarding their own health or that of their newborn. Support from close relatives proved crucial for their sense of safety and emotional stability. Early motherhood was perceived as an ambivalent experience that was both challenging and personally transformative. Conclusions: The attitudes of healthcare professionals toward underage patients were inconsistent and often failed to meet standards of respectful, empathetic obstetric care. There is a clear need to increase awareness and strengthen the preparedness of healthcare personnel to work with this vulnerable patient group, as well as to improve access to prenatal education for pregnant minors.
Attitudes of women with reproductive problems towards pregnancy and childbirth and their life satisfaction
Abstract: Introduction: Infertility is defined as the failure to conceive after 12 months of regular unprotected intercourse (3-4 times per week). Objective: The aim of this study was to assess life satisfaction and attitudes toward pregnancy and childbirth among women undergoing infertility treatment. Materials and methods: The study involved 103 women treated for infertility. Data were collected using a diagnostic survey, including a self-designed questionnaire and two standardized tools: the Test for Assessing Women’s Attitudes Toward Pregnancy and Childbirth, and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Results: The average score for attitudes toward pregnancy was M = 23.18 (SD = 3.35), with scores ranging from 15 to 32 points. For attitudes toward childbirth, the mean score was higher at M = 26.11 (SD = 4.36), ranging from 10 to 36 points. The mean SWLS score was M = 22.34 (SD = 6.11), with scores between 10 and 35 points. A significant negative correlation was found between duration of attempts to conceive and life satisfaction (r = -0.250; p = 0.011). A weaker but significant negative correlation was observed for attitude toward pregnancy (r = -0.216; p = 0.029). Significant differences were found in attitudes toward pregnancy across groups (H = 13.95; p = 0.003). Differences in attitudes toward childbirth by age groups showed a statistical trend (H = 7.156; p = 0.067). Conclusions: Women undergoing infertility treatment showed varied but generally average life satisfaction levels. Most women had positive attitudes toward pregnancy and childbirth. Prolonged infertility treatment was associated with a decrease in overall life satisfaction among respondents.
The problem of medically assisted suicide in Italy in the years 2024-2025
The main purpose of the article is to present an ethical and legal analysis of the dispute over medically assisted suicide in Italy. In early July 2025, a bill was submitted to the country’s Parliament to regulate the termination of life on request. The legislative initiative represents yet another stage in the intense public debate over medical aid in dying that has been going on in Italy for several decades. One of its major milestones was the enactment in 2017 of the Law on living wills, which consists of an anticipatory expression of will by an adult or legal guardian – made while enjoying full mental capacity – concerning the possible undertaking or abandonment in the future of various medical therapies and treatments which the individual wishes or does not wish to consent to. The adoption of the Living Will Law has significantly revived the debate on the criteria for terminating life on request. In 2019, the Italian Constitutional Court ruled that Italian residents have the right to receive medical assistance in suicide. In order to gain access to such a medical procedure, several requirements must be met: the person must suffer from an irrecoverable disease that causes physical or mental suffering qualifying as unbearable; he or she must be fully capable of making free and informed decisions; and ultimately must receive life-sustaining treatment. In recent years, some circles in Italy have been pushing for the liberalization of these regulations, advocating for the abolition of the life-sustaining treatments criterion. In 2024, the Constitutional Court and the National Committee for Bioethics spoke out on the matter. The Italian bioethics dispute over medically assisted suicide touches on a number of important issues at the intersection of law and ethics. Analyses presented in the article demonstrate that the most important elements of this debate concern the understanding of the dignity of human life, the relationship that exists between law and morality, and the limits of our freedom.
Experiencing mobbing as a moderator of the relationship between self-esteem and achievement motivation
Introduction: This empirical study aimed to examine the relationship between self-esteem and achievement motivation, to determine whether differences exist in self-esteem and achievement motivation levels between individuals who have experienced mobbing and those who have not, and to analyse whether experiencing mobbing moderates the relationship between achievement motivation and self-esteem. The findings of this study may be useful for designing employee support programmes, particularly for individuals experiencing reduced self-esteem and exposure to mobbing. The results of the analysis also highlight the need to implement preventive and intervention measures aimed at reducing the incidence of mobbing. Methods: The study involved 529 participants, of whom 107 were classified as individuals experiencing mobbing, based on their scores on the MDM Questionnaire. Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), while achievement motivation was assessed using the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Wojdyło & Retowski, Polish adaptation). Results: The results of the correlational analyses indicated that higher self-esteem was associated with a higher intensity of mastery-approach motivation, whereas avoidance motivation was negatively correlated with self-esteem. The analyses of group differences revealed that individuals who experienced mobbing demonstrated significantly lower self-esteem and higher levels of avoidance motivation compared to those not exposed to mobbing. However, the moderation analyses did not confirm the hypothesis regarding the moderating role of mobbing. Experiencing mobbing did not significantly affect the strength or direction of the relationship between achievement motivation and self-esteem. Although the observed correlations were statistically significant, their effect sizes were relatively small, which may suggest the complexity of the psychological mechanisms linking self-esteem and achievement motivation. Conclusions: The results suggest that self-esteem may serve as a stable regulatory mechanism, operating independently of negative environmental influences. Nevertheless, mobbing itself exerts a detrimental impact on both self-esteem and motivation. The findings of this study emphasise the need for further, in-depth research on mediating and protective factors within the context of mobbing. Moreover, the results have important implications for human resource management practice, underscoring the role of managers in identifying manifestations of mobbing and implementing systemic measures aimed at safeguarding employees and fostering a supportive organisational climate.
achievement motivation, mobbing, self-esteem
Factors influencing the regularity of the menstrual cycle in Polish university female students
Introduction: The regularity of the menstrual cycle is one of the key indicators of procreation health. The frequency of menstruation disorders in young women, including students, may result from various socio-demographic and lifestyle-related factors. The aim of the study was to examine whether the regularity of Polish female students’ menstrual cycles depended on selected socio-demographic variables and their lifestyle. Material and method: The study involved 490 Polish female university students over the age of 18, representing various fields of study. The study was carried out in the form of an anonymous online questionnaire from November 2022 to March 2023. A diagnostic survey method was used, employing a bespoke questionnaire. Socio-demographic data, lifestyle (for example, sleep, physical activity, stress, drugs), characteristics of the menstrual cycle and the occurrence of accompanying symptoms were analysed. Statistical analysis was performed (chi-square test, p < 0.05). Results: 30% of participants reported irregular menstrual cycles. Among the analysed variables, only the year of studies (p = 0.024), smoking (p = 0.006) and eating breakfast every day (p = 0.014) showed a statistically significant relationship with the cycle regularity. Students in higher years of their studies, non-smokers and those who ate breakfast every day were more likely to report regular menstruation. Conclusions: Nearly one in three students had irregular menstruation cycles, which may indicate actual and potential health problems. Therefore, it is necessary to identify factors related to irregular menstruation to determine appropriate preventive and remedial strategies. Irregular menstrual cycles were significantly more common among respondents who were in their first years of studies. The rest analysed socio-demographic variables did not differentiate the group of study participants. Smoking tobacco and skipping breakfast were strongly associated with irregular menstruation, which highlights the importance of modifiable lifestyle factors in the prevention and promotion of procreation health.
Sleep disorders in women during the menopausal transition – a narrative literature review
Sleep, defined as a reversible neurobehavioral state regulated by circadian rhythms, is essential for health. Sleep disorders, especially during the perimenopausal period (age 45– 55), are a significant health problem, affecting up to 60% of women during this period. These women often report a deterioration in sleep quality, frequent awakenings, and chronic feelings of sleep deprivation. This narrative literature review synthesizes current scientific reports on the biological, physical, and psychosocial mechanisms underlying these complaints. The etiopathogenesis of sleep disorders is multifactorial, with hormonal changes considered to be the main cause. Fluctuations and decreases in estrogen and progesterone (and its metabolite allopregnanolone) are directly associated with a deterioration in sleep structure, a decrease in sleep efficiency, and disruption of the circadian rhythm, including the action of melatonin. Estrogen deficiency may also increase the risk of sleep-disordered breathing. The clinical picture is dominated by insomnia, the main symptoms of which are difficulty staying asleep and prolonged wakefulness after falling asleep. The review lists vasomotor symptoms, mood disorders (anxiety and depression), and nocturia resulting from hormonal dysregulation affecting bladder capacity and urine production at night as secondary factors of insomnia. In addition, an increase in the frequency of primary disorders, including obstructive sleep apnea and restless legs syndrome, is observed during the perimenopausal period. Sleep disorders are often underestimated and undiagnosed, which contributes to the deterioration of mental health and professional functioning and increases the risk of chronic diseases and injuries (e.g., falls). The level of knowledge about proper sleep hygiene among women is generally low. The conclusions of the review point to the multidimensional nature of the problem and the need for a holistic, interprofessional, team-based approach to improve the quality of life for women during the menopausal transition.
Psychometric evaluation of the family APGAR Scale in a Polish population: Reliability, validity, and factor structure
The main objective of the study was to adapt the Family APGAR by Smilkstein to the Polish reality and check its reliability and validity for the purpose of the diagnostic properties of this tool and scientific research. FAPGAR is a self-descriptive, paper-pencil type questionnaire. It consists of five statements concerning the functioning of the family in five domains: Adaptability, Partnership, Growth, Affection and Resolve. 312 adults (156 women and 156 men) in married couples from one year to 35 years of married life were studied. The studies also used the Spanier’s Dyadic Adjustment Scale (abbr. DAS) and the Family Rating Scale (abbr. SOR) based on Flexibility and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (abbr. FACES-IV) by Olson. The validity and reliability of the scale were analysed by appropriate statistical methods. The results obtained with its assistance are significantly correlated with the results of measuring the functioning of the family by other methods. It can be concluded that FAPGAR has obtained satisfactory indicators of reliability and relevance. The results showed that FAPGAR can be used in the Polish market for both scientific research and clinical work. It may be particularly useful for physicians and health care professionals for screening and initial diagnosis of the functioning of patients.
The Polish adaptation of the Blood Donor Identity Survey
The present study aimed to culturally adapt and validate the Polish version of the Blood Donor Identity Survey (BDIS-PL), a multidimensional tool grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) for assessing motivational profiles of blood donors. Despite increasing public health concerns over declining donor numbers in Poland, psychological research in this area remains limited. The BDIS fills a critical gap by capturing six types of motivational regulation: amotivation, external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. A total of 665 Polish participants completed the BDIS-PL, along with personality and prosocial orientation measures (NEO-PI-R subscales and the Light Triad Scale). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the original six-factor structure (CFI = .93; RMSEA = .08), and all subscales demonstrated acceptable to high internal consistency (α = .66–.88). Metric, but not scalar, measurement invariance was supported across gender. Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed via multitrait–multimethod matrix analyses, showing expected correlations between motivation types and personality traits. Motivational profiles significantly differentiated between active donors, former donors, and non-donors: active donors displayed significantly higher levels of internalized motivation (identified, integrated, intrinsic) and lower amotivation. These findings support the psychometric robustness of the BDIS-PL and highlight the importance of internalized motivation for sustained blood donation. The tool offers valuable insights for designing targeted interventions to enhance donor retention and recruitment in Poland, particularly by fostering autonomous forms of motivation. This study provides cross-cultural validation of the BDIS and reinforces the utility of SDT in health-related behavior research.
Men’s mental health in the context of hegemonic norms of masculinity: A developmental and interdisciplinary literature review
This article is a review and provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the relationship between socio-cultural constructions of masculinity and men’s mental health in the current state of research. The aim of the study is to identify the mechanisms through which hegemonic patterns of masculinity influence the emotional functioning of individuals, as well as to indicate the possibilities for transforming these patterns through educational and self-educational activities. The authors analyze masculinity norms as social constructs that reinforce patterns of behavior promoting independence, strength, emotional restraint, and distance from one’s own psychological difficulties. From a pedagogical perspective, attention is drawn to the need to redefine dominant models of masculinity towards patterns that support the development of reflectiveness, empathy, and readiness to take pro-health actions, including seeking psychological help. In order to formulate conclusions, a systematic review of the scientific literature available in key databases was conducted: PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The search was based on logical combinations of keywords related to masculinity, mental health, cultural gender, upbringing, and emotional expression. The analysis of the collected material confirms the existence of a strong link between the internalization of traditional models of masculinity and a limited ability to recognize and express emotions, a reluctance to seek professional support, and the reinforcement of beliefs that hinder adaptive mental functioning. There is a growing need to create educational and upbringing environments that will foster the development of masculinity as an open, flexible construct integrated with the well-being of the individual. The article presents a proposal for emotional life pedagogy as an area of influence that supports men’s mental health and strengthens their relational and psychosocial capital. The conclusions drawn from the analysis can form the basis for the design of educational programs and social strategies aimed at supporting men in the process of identity building in accordance with the values of a contemporary, multidimensional model of health.
Perinatal experience of women with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Background: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with considerable individual variability. Population-based studies put its prevalence at 1% to 5% of the population. Due to the different presentation of symptoms, women with ADHD are less likely to receive adequate help. They face more difficulties in the perinatal period than neurotypical women. Pregnant women with ADHD are more likely to experience family difficulties, including conflicts with their partner or lack of support from relatives, as well as a variety of obstetric complications, such as the need for delivery by cesarean section, pregnancy-induced hypertension or anaemia. A small number of scientific papers focus on their individual experience of pregnancy and childbirth. Method: the study was conducted by means of semi-structured individual interviews. Ten women with a formal diagnosis of ADHD, whose last delivery was between 2019 and 2024, participated in the study. Participants were selected by purposive sampling from women willing to participate in the study. Data were analysed and coded according to reflective thematic analysis methodology. Results: When analysing the content of the interviews, 3 leading themes were identified: 1. ADHD in the perinatal period (Attention Deficit Disorder, Hyperactivity and impulsivity, Atypical sensory processing), 2. In relationships with others, and 3. Consequences of perinatal experiences, together with subthemes that were relevant to the women interviewed. Conclusions: The perinatal experiences of women with ADHD were significantly influenced by the symptoms of the disorder. Focusing on the individual needs of pregnant and birthing women and taking into account the difficulties arising from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder can significantly improve the perinatal experience of these women. Care during labour should take into account the particular sensory sensitivity to the hospital environment described in the study and avoid immobilising parturients. Lack of support from medical staff and family can result in long-term negative consequences. Changes are needed in the management of care for pregnant and birthing women with ADHD, as research has shown that some women, due to traumatic birth experiences, declared abandonment of further procreative plans.
Children as victims of domestic violence: Effective CBT strategies for treating trauma
A child’s experience of domestic violence can be considered interpersonal trauma, as they are harmed by someone they know and are close to. On the other hand, domestic violence is associated with severe and chronic stress, which in the long term can have devastating effects on the child’s physical and mental health. The aim of this review paper is to present the problem of domestic violence against children, signaling modern methods of cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy that are highly effective in treating psychological trauma. The article consists of two parts: the first part provides characteristics and a scale of the phenomenon of domestic violence against children, its determinants and its consequences. The second part reviews effective CBT strategies in the treatment of post-traumatic disorders. The subject matter for the first part of this article relates to theoretical models of the causes of violence, in terms of its determinants, and in particular the GAM (General Aggression Model), Albert Bandury’s social learning theory, and the theory of intergenerational transmission of violence. As part of the characterization of the consequences of domestic violence, numerous studies confirming the relationship between relation trauma and a range of diverse disorders are cited. In particular, the etiology of PTSD is discussed. The second part of the article addresses effective methods of trauma treatment based on the cognitive-behavioral paradigm. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy (TF-CBT), as a practice based on reliable scientific evidence (EBP – evidence-based practice), has been recognized as the first-line therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorders. The text presents Edna Foa’s prolonged exposure method, Patricia Resick’s cognitive processing therapy, along with a discussion of the neurobiological basis of PTSD and CPT. The paper also includes a description of an innovative process-based approach. An important research task for the future remains to conduct further scientific research on predictors of the effectiveness of PTSD treatment, with particular emphasis on the therapeutic alliance and factors protecting children from developing trauma.
Sexual initiation and premarital sexual partners and the quality of bond, communication, and perceived marital match among young adult spouses
The quality of marital relationships, including emotional bond, communication, and the perceived compatibility of partners, has long been of interest to researchers. Among the various factors influencing relationship quality, premarital sexual experiences are increasingly recognized. Due to the scarcity of research on this topic within the population of Polish spouses, the present study aimed to examine the relationship between the number of sexual partners and the type of first sexual partner (spouse, former romantic partner, non-romantic partner) and the quality of marital relationships among young adults, specifically regarding bond, communication, and perceived partner match. The study also explored the relationship between the quality of the marital relationship and regret over initiating sexual activity with someone other than the spouse. The study involved 306 married individuals (153 women and 153 men) aged 20 to 35. The research was conducted using a diagnostic survey in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Three standardized psychometric tools were used (the Marital Bond Scale by Józef Szopiński, the Marital Communication Questionnaire by Maria Kaźmierczak and Mieczysław Plopa, and the Marital Match Questionnaire by Jan Rostowski and Mieczysław Plopa), along with an author-developed questionnaire. The results showed that women who had sexual experiences exclusively with their spouse scored significantly higher in the areas of bonding and marital compatibility than women whose sexual initiation occurred with a non-romantic partner, as well as those with a higher number of sexual partners. As the number of sexual partners increased, women reported lower levels of emotional connection, intimacy, and self-fulfillment, and higher levels of spouse devaluation and relationship disappointment. Among men, no statistically significant relationships were found. For women, regret about sexual initiation with someone other than the spouse correlated with a lower sense of marital compatibility. The results obtained allow us to conclude that premarital sexual experiences may have a long-term impact on the quality of marital relationships, especially among women.
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Attachment styles as mediators between autistic traits and psychological distress: The role of social and communication difficulties
Autistic traits such as social skill and communication difficulties are linked to increased risk of depression and anxiety. Attachment theory offers a useful framework for understanding these associations, as insecure attachment styles are known to affect emotion regulation and mental health. This study examined whether adult attachment styles (secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent) mediate the relationship between autistic traits and psychological distress. A sample of 130 adults completed measures of autistic traits, attachment, and psychological functioning. Mediation analyses revealed that social difficulties – but not communication deficits – consistently mediated the link between attachment styles and psychological symptoms. Secure attachment was protective, while avoidant and especially anxious-ambivalent styles predicted greater distress. These findings highlight the importance of addressing attachment-related processes and social functioning in interventions for individuals with elevated autistic traits.
Specificity of euphemistic lexis in media discourse on the example of Russian press from 2017-2021
This article investigates the issue of euphemistic lexicon used in Russian periodicals of the early 21st century. The purpose of the study is to analyse the functional features of euphemisms, the specifics of their use in media discourse, and to determine their role in the manipulation of public opinion. The material of the study consisted of texts in modern Russian socio-political periodicals. Examples of euphemistic units from the newspaper sub-corpus of the National Corpus of the Russian Language are used as illustrative material. The manipulative potential of euphemisms is manifested in masking the true meaning of the message by creating a neutral or positive connotation, distorting the real scale of events or phenomena. Publicistic discourse is a source of information for a wide audience, which strengthens the influential role of euphemistic lexicon. The central focus of the study is to identify priority topics belonging to the socio-political sphere that are subject to euphemisation in the modern Russian press. There is an indication of an increase in the number of euphemisms related to socially significant topics and spheres of human activity in the journalistic discourse. The characteristic feature of this group is its close connection with socio-cultural processes. The repeated use of euphemism weakens its key function and stimulates the formation of new euphemistic units. The use of some euphemisms in publicistic discourse is dictated by the norms of political correctness in modern communication. The results of the study presented in the article indicate a fairly wide use of euphemisms in the language of the modern Russian press.
Maternal attachment styles and maternal-fetal attachment: The serial mediation role of alexithymia and depressive symptoms
Maternal-fetal attachment refers to the emotional and cognitive bond a pregnant woman develops with her unborn child. This bond plays a significant role in prenatal care behaviors and the later formation of the mother-infant relationship. The aim of the present study was to identify the psychological mechanisms underlying maternal-fetal attachment, with particular emphasis on maternal attachment styles, alexithymia, and depressive symptoms, using a serial mediation model. The study sample consisted of 173 women in their second and third trimesters of pregnancy. The findings indicated that maternal attachment styles – secure, anxious, and avoidant – significantly influenced emotional bonding with the unborn child. Alexithymia and depressive symptoms functioned as successive mediators in this process. A secure attachment style was associated with lower levels of alexithymia and depressive symptoms, which in turn facilitated stronger maternal-fetal attachment. Conversely, anxious and avoidant attachment styles were linked to higher levels of alexithymia and depressive symptoms, which weakened maternal-fetal attachment.
Attachment styles, body image and sexual communication as predictors of sexual satisfaction in young men: A serial mediation model
The aim of the present study was to identify the psychological mechanisms that mediate the relationship between attachment style and sexual satisfaction among young men in romantic relationships. Based on a review of the literature, a serial mediation model was proposed in which body image and sexual communication serve as mediators. The study included 187 men aged between 19 and 32 years (M = 26; SD = 7.26). Standardized psychometric instruments were used to assess attachment style, body image attitudes, sexual communication self-efficacy, and overall sexual satisfaction. Results revealed that secure attachment was positively associated with sexual satisfaction, and this effect was fully mediated by a more positive body image and higher sexual communication efficacy. For the anxious-ambivalent attachment style, a full serial mediation was observed: individuals with high attachment anxiety tended to exhibit a more negative body image, which reduced their openness in sexual communication and, in turn, was linked to lower sexual satisfaction. In the case of avoidant attachment, a partial mediation was identified: the negative impact of avoidant attachment on sexual satisfaction was primarily explained by reduced sexual communication efficacy, with a weaker but still significant link to body image. These findings highlight the importance of complex psychological mechanisms that connect early attachment patterns with the quality of adult sexual functioning. The results also point to the relevance of therapeutic interventions aimed at enhancing body image and developing sexual communication skills among men with insecure attachment styles.
Copyright (c) 2025 Quarterly Journal Fides et Ratio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0